Optoelectronic

Applications
Optoelectronic
Applications
1.  Photodetectors (photoconductors, photodiodes)
2.  Solar cells
56
3.  LEDs

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Photodetectors
Optoelectronic
Optical absorption in OPT, near IR and IR
Applications

57 Wavelength II (pm)

10' I0-2
\ 300 K

acirera@ub.edu

',
InAs,

knon ' H e
- Xenon Cesium Xenon
I
I. I I I I I I
3 4 5 6 I 8 9
Wavelength II (pm) Wavelength II (pm)

Fig. 1 Optical absorption coefficients for various photodetector materials, from (a)
\ 300 K optical to (b) infrared. Some laser emission wavelengths are indicated. (After Ref. 1.)
 signal-to-noise
overall optimization.ratio. There are many factors that contribute to noise. The dark current
is theThe leakage
signal current when the photodetector
of the photocurrent is under
should be maximized for bias but not
sensitivity. Theexposed
basic to the
transit
source.time can be shortened. On the other hand, the capacitance has to be kept low
light
metric is the One limitation
quantum on the
efficiency, device
defined operation
as the number of is carriers
temperature
producedso the
per thermal
which means
Photodetectors a larger depletion width. As seen, a trade-off has to be made for the
energy
photon, should
or be smaller than the photon energy (kT < h v).Another source of noise
overall optimization.
is
Optoelectronic from The
background
signal ofradiation, such asshould
the photocurrent black-body radiationfor
be maximized from the detector
sensitivity. The housing
basic
Applicationsat room
metrictemperature
is the quantum if not cooled.defined
efficiency, Internalas device
the numbernoiseofincludes thermal per
carriers produced noise
Metrics: Q. eff.
(Johnson Iphnoise),
photon,
where which is related
isorthe photocurrent, to photon
@ is the the random
flux (=thermal
Po,,lhv),agitation
and Popttheof optical
carriers in any
resistive
power. The device.
idealThe shot efficiency
quantum noise is due to theThe
is unity. discrete single
reduction events
is due of theloss
to current photoelectric
by
Quantum efficiency carriers Thisper photon
58 effect, and the statistical
recombination, incompletion fluctuations
absorption,associated with
reflection, etc. them.
Another similar is especially
metric is the impor-
responsivityz,
tant for low light using the optical
intensity. Thepower
thirdasisthe
duereference,
to flicker noise, otherwise known as llf
where Iph is the photocurrent, @ is the photon flux (= Po,,lhv), and Poptthe optical
Responsivity
power. The ideal quantum efficiency is unity. The reduction carriers per
is due to photon
current loss by
acirera@ub.edu
recombination, incompletion absorption, reflection, etc. Another similar metric is the
ToTable
further1 improve the signal,
Typicalusing
responsivityz, Values some
Gainphotodetectors
theofopticaland Response
power have
Timeanforinternal
as the reference, Common gainPhotodetectors
mechanism.
Comparison of the gains of common photodetectors are shown in Table 1. Gain as
high as lo6 can be achieved. Unfortunately, high gain also leads
Photodetector to higher
Gain noise which
Response time (s)
is the following topic.
Photoconductor 1-106 10-8- 10-3
Apart from a large signal, low noise is also important as it will ultimately deter-
To further improve the signal,
Photodiodes some photodetectors have an1 internal gain10-11
p-n junction mechanism.
mine the minimum detectable signal strength. That is why we often speak of the
Comparison of the gains p-i-n
of junction
common photodetectors are shown 1 10-10-11.0-8
in Table Gain as
signal-to-noise ratio. There are many factors that contribute to noise. The dark current
highleakage
is the as lo6 can be achieved.
current theUnfortunately,
whenMetal-semiconductor
photodetector is high
diodegainbias
under alsobut
leads
1 nottoexposed
higher10-11
noise
to the which
is
light the
CCD following
source. topic. on the device operation is temperature
One limitation 1 10-1
so the 1-104*
thermal
Avalanche
energy Apart
should photodiode
from a largethan
be smaller signal,
the low noise
photon is also
energy < h v).102-1
(kTimportant as0 it
Another 4 will ultimately
source w 0 deter-
of1onoise
mine the minimum
Phototransistor
is from background detectable
radiation, such as signal strength.
black-body radiation is=why
That from 102
thewe 10-6 of the
oftenhousing
detector speak
at*signal-to-noise
room
Limited ratio.
temperature
by charge if There
not Large
transfer. are integration
cooled. many factors
Internal that
is ancontribute
device
time noise to noise.
includes
advantage for CCD The
thermal
for high dark
noise current
sensitivity.
is the leakage
(Johnson current
noise), which is when
relatedthe photodetector
to the random thermal is under bias but
agitation not exposed
of carriers in any to the
light source.
resistive Oneshot
device. The limitation
noise is onduethe device
to the operation
discrete is temperature
single events so the thermal
of the photoelectric
effect, andshould
energy the statistical fluctuations
be smaller than theassociated with them.
photon energy h v).isAnother
(kT <This especially impor-
source of noise
 thickness D is much larger than the light penetration depth (lla) so that al
power is absorbed, the total steady-state generation and recombination rates
riers per unit volume are
Photodetectors
Optoelectronic 668 CHAPTER 13. PHOTODETECTORS ANDFrom
SOLAR CELLS
material to device
Applications
Extrinsic
Intrinsic A

59
Active
layer Impurity
level
acirera@ub.edu
(a) (b)
HOTODETECTORS AND SOLARFig.
CELLS
2 (a) Schematic diagram of a photoconductor for analysis, which consists of a slab of
Fig. 3 Processes
semiconductor with two ohmic contacts. (b) Typicalof intrinsic
layout photoexcitation
consists from
of interdigitated band to band, and extrinsic photoexc
contacts
with small gap. between impurity level and band.

The performance of a photodetector in general and a photoconductor in particular

is measured in terms of three parameters: the quantum efficiency and gain, the
response time, and the sensitivity (detectivity). First consider the principle of opera-
tion of a photoconductor under illumination (Fig. 2). Assuming a steady flow of
photon flux impinging uniformly on the surface of a photoconductor with area
A = WL,the total number of photons arriving at the surface is (PopJhv) per unit time,
Active
where Poptis the incident opticallayer
power and h v is the photon energy. At steady state,
the carrier generation rate G, must be equal to the recombination rate. If the device
thickness D is much larger than the light penetration depth (lla) so that all light
power is absorbed, the total steady-state generation and recombination rates of car-
riers per unit volume are
(b)
 tionwhere
of a z is the
photoconductorcarrierunder concentration
lifetime, 77 is the
illumination would
(Fig. quantum
2). decay
Assuming with
efficiency
a time
steady at numb
(i.e.,
flow a of
rate
ntration becomes concentration becomes concentration becomes 13.2 PHO

I
generated
photon per photon),
flux impinging uniformlyand nonisthe thesurface
excessofcarrier density. Since
a photoconductor withthisareaco
ndoping
=at G,z. n =( 6ofG,z. nv)( per unitn(0)ex
=
t )efficiency
n A==much
WL,the
G,z. total number
larger than
wheretheofzbackground
photons
is arriving
the carrier the level
lifetime, surface )isthe
77 is the (PopJh
photoconductor,
quantum time, th(
Photodetectors
where Poptis theThe
concentration incident
becomes
generated
optical
carrier lifetime
per
power and h vto
is related
photon), and
is the
n
the photon
is
energy. that
characteristics
the excess
At steady
carrier if the state,
density. light is
Sin
The carrier
arrier lifetime is related to the characteristics lifetime
the carrier generation is
thatrate related
if G,
the must to
light the characteristics
is taken
bedecay
equal to the off, the
recombination that if the light
rate. If the device is tak
concentration would
13.2 PHOTOCONDUCTOR
For an with time
intrinsic at a rate of669
photoconductor,
Optoelectronic
ntration would decay with timeconcentration
at a rate
thickness Dof Main
much
is would
parameters:
much larger larger
decay than than
with the
the time
quantum
background
light at na= rateG,z.
penetration ofdepth (lla), so
efficiency
doping level gain, the the
ofthat all
photo
photocon
light
Applications response
concentration is becomes
time andgeneration
sensitivity
I:( I:(
I:(
668 power
CHAPTER 13. PHOTODETECTORS is absorbed,
AND SOLAR CELLS the total steady-state n ( t ) =and recombination
n(0)exp - . rates of car-
where zis the carrier lifetime,riers 77The
is carrier
the lifetime
quantum
per unit volume are
is related
efficiency n ( t
to
(i.e.,
) =
the characteristics
number
n(0)exp -
of carriers
.
that if the light is
nIp= =G,z. o g W D = (,un
generated per photon),n and n isn(0)exp
(t) = - . would decay with time at a rate(7)
concentration
the excess carrier
For andensity.
intrinsic Since this concentration
photoconductor, of
the photocurrent is flowing between
Generation ratio
is The
I:(
much larger than carrier lifetime8isisrelated
where the tosteady-state
appliedthe characteristics
electric field that
insideif th
60 the backgroundFor doping level
anvolume)
intrinsic of the photoconductor,
photoconductor, the the
photocurrent flowing between the
(per
r an intrinsic photoconductor, the photocurrent flowing
concentration between
would n ( the
tdecay
) = electrodes
with
n(0)exp time -at a. rate of
concentration becomes is tuting nIp of o g W5Dinto
= Eq. Eq. 8 gives
= (,un+,up)nqgWD

Ip =
acirera@ub.edu
The carrier lifetime is related
o g W D = (,un+,up)nqgWD
is
where
n =anG,z.
For
8 is thelight
, when
intrinsic
to the8characteristics
applied
photoconductor,
tuting n of
electric
taken
Intrinsic
off
the
that
field
n ( inside
t ) =
photocurrent
Ip = o g W D = (,un+,up)nqgWD
Extrinsic
Eq. 5Active
into Eq. 8A
layer
if the
gives
light
( 6 ) -
flowing
is taken
.
I:(
the photoconductor,
n(0)exp between
(8)
and

off,photocurrent
the
8concentration where
is the applied electric field inside Photocurrent is the applied
the photoconductor, For electric
an intrinsic field
and inside the
photoconductor,
n = p . Substi- photoconductor,
the and n =
flowing
would decay with tuting timen of atEq.
a rate
5 of Eq. 8Ipgives
into
is If =weodefine
g W D the= (,un+,up)nqgWD
primary photocurrent as
n of Eq. 5 into Eq. 8 gives
(a)

Fig. 2 (a) Schematic diagram of a Only

with small gap.

photoconductor n I:(
where 8 is Ifthe
=for n(0)exp
n (ntuting
t )photogenerated
of Eq.
analysis,
we(b)applied
define theelectric
-
which5consists
semiconductor with two ohmic contacts. (b) Typical layout consists where
into . Eq. 8
of a slab
8 iscontacts
of interdigitated
tuting n offlowing
gives
of
field
Ip =inside
primary photocurrentogW
the applied electric field
asthe
D =photoconductor,
(,un+,up)nqgWD
Impurity (7)
and
levelinside the photoconduc

For an intrinsic photoconductor, If we define the photocurrent

thethe primary the 5photocurrent
Eq.
photocurrent
into Eq. 8 gives
between
as Eq. 9the
gainelectrodes
G, from Eq. 9 is
define the primary photocurrent as
Primary photocurrent photocurrent gain G, from is
is The performance of a photodetector in general and a photoconductor in particular
is measured in terms of three parameters:
Ip = o g If3the
W we
D =define
quantum theand
(,un+,up)nqgWDprimary
efficiency and gain,
gain photocurrent
the as
Fig. Processes of intrinsic photoexcitation
response time, and the sensitivity (detectivity). First consider the principle of opera- (8) photoexcitation
from band to band, and extrinsic
between
tion of a photoconductor under illumination impurity
(Fig. level
If we
2). Assuming and band. flow
a define
steady theofprimary photocurrent as
where 8
photon isfluxthe applied
impinging electric
uniformly field
surface inside
thethephotocurrent
on the photoconductor,
where
gain t,,
of a photoconductorG, (= L/png)
from
where
with and9trpis(=and
Eq.
area t,, (= n =areand
L/ppg)
L/png) . Substi-
pthe electron and hole transit ti
trp (= L/ppg)are the e
otocurrent gain G,5number
fromofEq.
Eq. transit time
A =nWL,
tuting of Eq.
the total into 8 9gives
photons is at the surface is (PopJhv) per unit time,
arriving electrodes. The gain depends
electrodes.
upon the ratios
The gain depends
of carrier lifetimes to the t
is energy.
where Poptis the incident optical power and h v is the photon a critical parameter
At steady state, in photoconductors. For highupon thelifetime
gain, the ratios so
the carrier generation rate G, must be equalthe photocurrent
to the recombination gainIf the
while rate.
G,isdevice
the electrode
from Eq. 9 is
a critical
spacing parameter in photoconductors.
should be short and mobilities high. A Fot
thickness D is much larger than the light penetration depththe (lla) so that all light
photocurrent gain G, from Eq. 9 is
1,000 is readily obtained, but higher gains up to lo6 have been achieved
 iffusion Ge
length of it will Jtot = Jdr + Jdiff
eventually be separated by the (25)
on of photodiode. (a) Cross-sectional view of p-i-n diode. (b) Energy-band
APTERwhere
urrent
verse 13.
bias. Jdr
flow isin
thethe drift
(c)PHOTODETECTORS
Carrier current
I external
generation due
characteristics. to carriers
circuit
AND as
SOLAR generated
carriers
(After CELLS
Ref. within
1 .)drift the depletion
across the region and
JdiE is the diffusion I current due to carriers generated
Photodiodes
*D
X
outside the depletion layer in the
bulk of the Jdr = -ql
semiconductor ( xand
G ella = q@OO[l-eXP(-aWD)l
) d x diffusing into the reverse-biased junction. (27) We shall
ndernow
where
can
Optoelectronic
derive
steady-state
OperationWD
be
of
*D
the
Applications
total
photodiode. c,current
is the depletion-layer
neglected and
=
that
(-)
Q0underaLp'
conditions
(a) Cross-sectional
Dp the
the total
the
- a2Lp"
1surface
width. Note view
Quantum efficiency of reverse bias PN or PiN
assumptions
of p-i-n
that within
p-layer is much
that the thermal
photocurrent diode. (b)
the thinner
density
depletionthan
generation current
Energy-band
region,
lla. aReferring to
13.3 PHOTOD

dJdrdepletion
under
quantum
Fig.13.
PTER
l Glayer
reverse
= - q efficiencye ( x ) d x is=given
bias.
6c,PHOTODETECTORS
(c) Carrier
of 100%q@OO[l
the electron-hole
by
generation
been
characteristics.
ϕ-eXP(-aWD)l
hasgeneration
AND
lo
0= SOLAR
assumed.
rateCELLS
is given by
(After Ref. 1 .)
(27)
ion For
current density
x > WD, is given by density (holes) in the bulk semiconductor is
the minority-carrier
Jtot by=theJdr
edetermined
depletion-layer + Jdiff
width. Note
one-dimensional G,(x)
that = @,,aexp(-ax)
within
diffusion the
equation depletion region, a (25) (26)
ncywhere
nt of 100%
due to
676 Oo has
is
61
been
the
carriers c,
*D =
CHAPTERgenerated
(-)
Q0
assumed.
incident
13. Dp 1
aLp'
photonwithin
a2Lp"
PHOTODETECTORS
-
flux perthe unit SOLAR
area given
ANDdepletion CELLS
by Pop,(
region 1 - R)/Ahv, R is the
and
, the reflection - q l density
Jdr =coefficient,
minority-carrier x ) d xA
G e (and = the
(holes)
is q@OO[l
in -eXP(-aWD)l
the
device bulk
area.semiconductor
The drift current is Jdr is (27)
thus given by
nton due
he current to carriers
one-dimensional generated
density isdiffusion
given676byAND outside
equation the depletion layer in the
(-)
CHAPTER 13. PHOTODETECTORS AND SOLAR CELLS
APTER 13. acirera@ub.edu
PHOTODETECTORS SOLAR CELLS zp aLp'
or
WD
where
and
is
Dp
the
is the
diffusing diffusion coefficient
into the
depletion-layer width. c,Note
for Q0
= that the
holes,
reverse-biased
Dp 1of-Eq.
lifetime
within
a2Lp"
junction.
the
of excess
We
depletion
carriers,
shall
region,
and (31)
a
pnothe equilibrium hole density. The solution c, = (-)28
Q0 under
aLp' the boundary condi-
nt
m under
efficiency theof assumptions
100% has
Q0 been that
assumed.the thermal generation current
urrent The
tions
xthe
pn
> WD,
density
= pno
the
surface
for isc,
x
diffusion =the
co,
(-)
sum
and
current
p-layer
=
minority-carrier
Dp
pn of
= aLp'
density
is
The
much
0Zdr
for
isinside
x
density
a2Lp"
1 diffusion
-
=
givenWDbythe
is
(holes)
thinner
given
in
than
Dp
depletion
by
the
current density is given by
1 - a2Lp"
region
bulk
lla.
and Idiffoutside
semiconductor
Referring to is
on,
ned
given
diffusion by
by thecoefficient for holes,
one-dimensional zp the lifetime
diffusion equation of excess carriers, and
generation
ion current
ium rateisThe
density
hole density. is solution
given
given by by of Eq. 28 under the boundary condi- (31)
r x
with Gp Jtot
co,=and
=Lp pn = 0
=and
gfor
o ox [=1 -WD exp(-aWD)]
is given by + 9PnoDE
urrent density is the sum of Zdr inside the depletion region and Idiffoutside (31)
G,(x) = @,,aexp(-ax)
on, given by + aL,
The total1current density is the sum of
(26)
LPZdr inside the depletion region (31)
and Idiffoutside
v j v "
photon
mal
Dp Theflux
operating
is the
Jtot
totalper
diffusion unit
conditions,
coefficient
current
= g o ogiven
the depletion, given by
area
density is given
the
forthe holes,
sum
exp(-aWD)] Jtot+=9PnoDE
[ 1 - by
by
of zp the
dark-current
ZdrPop,( 1
lifetime
inside the- R)/Ah
term v,
ofinvolving
excess
depletion
g o o [ 1 - exp(-aWD)] + 9PnoDE
R is the
pno
carriers,
region
Electron
(31)
and
Diffusion
I
I
isand
Idiff much
outside
Drift I Hole
I diffusion

Gpthat
A
andis
current
the
equilibrium
the
the depletion,
totalhole
device density.
photocurrent
area. The
The is solution
proportional
drift
=+2normal
0 1for
Zdr gxaL,
of
current Eq.to 28
LPregion
the
Jdr under
1 +is
the boundary
photon
aL,thus given
flux. The
LP byI condi-
quantum I

= pnobedensity
for x = isco,
the
andsumpnof=Jtot inside o=othe[WD depletion
- is given by the+and Idiffoutside I

can obtained from Eqs.

Under and 132, exp(-aWD)]
operating conditions, 9PnoDE
dark-current termGeinvolving pnois much
ion, given
mal by
operating conditions,smaller the sodark-current termis involving
that the total photocurrent pno
proportional to the is much
photon flux. The quantum
1 + aL, LP
hat the Under
total
Jtot -
q ==photocurrent
AJtot'9
g o o [ 1 - -efficiency can be obtained from Eqs. 2 and 32,
is ( I - R ) [
proportional
exp(-aWD)]
normal operating conditions, +
l -9PnoDE to the photon
the dark-current flux. The quantum
I

- ( I - R ) [ l - term involving pnois much

I
(33)
can be obtained from
Po,,/h Eqs. 2 and 32,
1 + photocurrent
v total
q= - AJtot'9
1 + aL, + aL, flux. The quantum (33) X

= Gp smaller so
and
that the aL, isPo,,/h
LP proportional
v to the1photon
Qualitatively, the quantum efficiency is reduced from unity due to refection R and
lla
 tion layer, aResponse.
Frequency phase difference
Since between
the carriers the require
photon aflux andtime
finite the
rnl kphotocurrent
to traverse willdeple-
the
I
appear when the incident
tion layer, a phase difference light intensity
between is modulated
the photon rapidly.
flux To
and obtain
the a quantitative will
photocurrent

result for this effect, the simplest
appear when the incidentPhotodetectors
case is shown in Fig. 7a where all
light intensity is modulated rapidly.aTo obtain
s
s the light is assume
a quantitative
to be absorbed at the surface. The applied voltage is assumed to bernlhigh k
enough to
result for this effect, the simplest case is shown in Fig. 7a where all I
the light is assume
deplete the intrinsic region
toflux Optoelectronic
be density
absorbed at the

surface.
and to ensure carrier saturation velocity us. For a photon
The(photons/s-cm2),
applied voltagethe is conduction s
assumed tocurrent
given by @,exp(jwt) sbe high enough to
density
deplete Applications Frequency Response of reverse bias PN
a
Jcondat the
pointintrinsic
x is foundregion
to be,and to ensure
assume carrier
q = loo%, saturation velocity us. For a photon
flux density given by @,exp(jwt) (photons/s-cm2), the conduction current density
Oscillating photon flux
Jcondat point
Fig. is found
7 (a)xGeometry analysis ofqtransit-time
to be,forassume
assumed = loo%,effect. Photoresponse (normalized
62 phase) vs. normalized modulation frequency of incident photon flux where
magnitude and
8= wtJ2. (After
The internal Ref.is10.)
current thus a function of time and distance. Since V.Jtot= 0, we can
write the Fig. 7 (a)total
external Geometry assumed
current as for analysis of transit-time effect. Photoresponse (normalized 13.3 PHOTODIODES
magnitude and phase) vs. normalized modulation frequency of incident photon flux where
The internal current isRef.
thus 10.)a function of time and distance. Since V.Jtot= 0, we can

-
acirera@ub.edu
8= wtJ2. (After
write the external total j WE,
Jtot =current +
v
[w,
as4@1
1 - exp(-jut,) Surface
generation
only \
jut, J (x,O Bulk
semiconductor (a)
where V is the sum = Wdv,is the
and@,exp(jmt)
where the second termofinapplied
parentheses voltage is
j WE, v
andthethe
1 built-in
exp(-jut,)
displacement potential, current. t, Substituting Eq. 34
transit time of carriers
into Eq. 35 yields
through
Jtot = [w, the depletion
+ 4@1
-
region.
jut,
From Eq. 36 the short-circuit
678
678 current
CHAPTERdensity =13.
0) isPHOTODETECTORS
13.( VPHOTODETECTORS
CHAPTER given by AND SOLAR AND SOLAR
CELLSCELLS
where V is the sum of applied voltage and the built-in potential, and t, = Wdv,is the
where thetransit
For theFor
second
thetime
p-i-n
term
p-i-n
photodiode,
in parentheses
ofphotodiode,
carriers thethrough theisof
the thickness
thickness
the displacement
depletion
the of region.
the
i-region is From
i-region current.
isEq.
assumed 36
assumed
equal
Substituting
the short-circuit
equal
to l l a to
. lla.
Eq. 34
into Eq.The35
The carrier yields
current
carrier
transit density
time is(time
transit V = 0)
the is isthe
time given
timebyrequired
required for carriers
for carriers to drifttothrough
drift through the i-region.
the i-region.
From Figure
From
Eq. 377btheshows
Eq. 37
3-dBthethe transit-time
3-dB
frequency frequency
i-region effects
is given is
1/α at(wt,
given
by highby=frequencies
2.4) = 2.4)where the amplitude and
(wt, rnl k
I
phase angle of the normalized current are plotted as a function of the normalized
modulation frequency. Note that the magnitude of the ac photocurrent decreases s
s
a
rapidlyFigure
with 7b shows the
frequency when transit-time
ut, exceeds effects
unity.atAthighut, frequencies where theis amplitude
= 2.4, the amplitude reduced and
by A phase
and angle
is
8 shows of the
accompanied normalized a phasecurrent
by quantum shift ofare
0 . 4plotted
~The as aq/(
. response function
1 -time ofthe
of
R ) of thephoto-
the Sinormalized
FigureFigure
8 shows the
modulation
the
internal internal
frequency.quantum Note
efficiency,
efficiency,
that that
the magnitude is,that
q/( is,
1
ofthe- R ) of the Si p-i-n pho-
thedepletion
ac photocurrent
p-i-n pho-
decreases
detector
todiode is thus limited
as a function byof the carrier
the frequency transit
3-dB frequency time andthrough
the depletion width layer. A rea-
calculated from
todiode as
sonable
a function
rapidly of the
with frequency
compromise
3-dB
between when and the
ut, exceeds response
high-frequency
depletion
unity. At and ut, = width
high
calculated
2.4,quantum
the amplitude from
is reduced
efficiency
Eq. 38isEq. 38 and1.Fig. 1.curves
The curves illustrate the trade-off between the response speed
and A
byFig.
obtained andThe
for anis absorption
accompanied illustrate
by aof
region
(3-dB frequency which is proportional to l/W,) and Fig.
the
phase trade-off
shift of
thickness lla0between
.to
4 ~2The thethat
.l a such response
response
quantum atime ofspeed
reasonably
efficiency
7 (a) Geometry
the photo-
assumedatforvarious
analysis of transit-time effect. Photoresponse (normali

Optoelectronic Applications
Optoelectronic
Applications
1.  Photodetectors (photoconductors, photodiodes)
2.  Solar cells
63
3.  LEDs

acirera@ub.edu




 op op p n
a junction as a generation current. In particular, carriers gen
If we call the thermally generateddepletion region
current W are separated
described in Eq. (5-37b) by the /lh,junction
we can field, ele
the optical generationlected
add Solar Cells of Eq.in(8-1) the ntoregion
find theand holes
total in thecurrent
reverse p region. Also, minori
with
illumination. Since this current is directedwithin
ated thermally fromandiffusion
to p, thelength diode of equation
each side of the ju
Optoelectronic[Eq. (5-36)] becomes the depletion region and are swept to the other side by the el
Applications Basic theory
junction is uniformly illuminated by photons with hv > Eg, a
Chapter 8
1 tion
) - / rate
op gop (EHP/cm3-s) participates in this current (Fig. 8-1
the /-axis at negative values proportionalholes created per second
to gop. When there within
is an open a diffusion
cir- length of the tran
7 = qA / =Pn + thethe
64 across the device,{^
cuit 0 and ^ ) { voltage
e qnVside
/ k T Vis= 1]
~ALpg
V~ op.^AgaJLLp
oc is Similarly A +L„g
Ln op + electrons
W) (8-2)are generate
in Ln oixp() and AWgop carriers are generated within W.The
kT
Thus the I-V curve is due toby
lowered collection
an amount of these optically to
proportional generated
the carriers by the
genera-
Voc = yln[/ o p // t h + 1]
acirera@ub.edution rate (Fig. 8-lc). This equation can be considered in two parts —the
current described by Lp usual
the + Ln diode+ W equation, and / opthe= qAg currentop(Lpdue + toLnop-+ W)
= — In + 1 (8-3a)
tical generation. 9 X^php)Pn + call
(£nAJn
When the device is If we
short the thermally
circuited
f
(V = 0),generated
the terms current
from thedescribed
diode in Eq. (5
For the special case of a symmetrical
add the junction,
optical pn = np and
generation of rp = (8-1)
Eq. T„, weto find the total reve
equation
can rewrite cancel
Eq. (6-5) in in Eq. of
terms (8-2),
the as expected.
thermal However,
generation rate p there
h = is
g h aan£short-circuit
* Figure 8
current from n to p equal illumination.
to / .Thus the Since
I- V this current
n
characteristics
n is
of
t directed
Fig. 8-lc from
cross n to p, the
the optical generation rate gop. Neglecting
[Eq. op generation
(5-36)] becomes within W: Optical g
tion of ca
hv > Ea kT , £oP
— ln— for g0p » 8i
1 ) - / op (8-3b)
V, a p-n jun
(a) absor
Actually, the term gth =pnhn represents the""si equilibrium1^
7 = qA Pn thermal + { egeneration-
qV/kT 1]
light by t
{^
recombination rate. As the minority carrier concentration is increased £OD = 0
^) by op- ~ ~ ^AgaJLLp + L
vice; (b)
tical generation ofi EHPs,
i nthe lifetime T„ becomes shorter, andp„/T„ becomes
/op resulti
p i for a given N and T). Therefore, EHP gen
larger (pn is fixed, •i d Thus the I-V-L curve Voc cannot increase
is lowered by an in-
amount proportiona
within a
definitely with increased
Mv-~l generation rate; in fact, the limit on V is the equi-
tion rate8 (Fig. 8-lc). This equation can be considered length in
QC
of
librium contact potential V0 (Fig. 8-2). This result
Poop
P - Wis
oop f to
'pl be expected, since the
current described by the usual diode equation, andtion theoncuth

Solar Cells
Optoelectronic
Applications
any increment dx. Since a photon which has survived to x without absorption
has no memory of how far it has traveled, its probability of absorption in any
dx is constant. Thus the degradation of the intensity -dl(x)/dx is propor-
65
tional to the intensity remaining at x:

acirera@ub.edu

The solution to this equation is

lM = V _ o a (4-2)
-  Antireflective
and the intensity of light transmitted coating,
through to
thereduce
samplereflection
thicknessand
I issurface
recombination
-  d<Lp but i,=V~ a / (4~3)
-  Large doping for high Vb, but long lifetime required!
The coefficient-  a Low serialthe
is called resistance butcoefficient
absorption thin n contacts
and has units of
cm -1 . This coefficient will of course vary with the photon wavelength and
with the material. In a typical plot of a vs. wavelength (Fig. 4-3), there is neg-
ligible absorption at long wavelengths (hv small) and considerable absorp-

Solar Cells fill factor

Optoelectronic
Applications

Ac area
66 E input light (W/m2)

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722 CHAPTER 13. PHOTODETECTORS AND SOLAR CELLS

Fig. 41 Idealized equivalent circuit of solar cell under illumination.

 choosing
short-circuit a load,
current closeisto
which 80%toofthe
equal thephotocurrent
product I,,&,derived.
can be The
extracted. areaI,,is the
shadedHere is the
maximumshort-circuit current We
power output. which is equal
also definetointheFig.
photocurrent derived.I,The
43 the quantities shaded
and areacor-
V, that is the
maximum power output. We also define in Fig. 43 the quantities I, and V, that cor-
respond to the current and voltage, for the maximum power output P, (= I,V,).
Solar Cells
respond to the current
To derive the maximum-power
and voltage, for the maximum power output P, (= I,V,).
operating point, the output power is given by
To derive the maximum-power operating point, the output power is given by
Optoelectronic
Applications P724
= I VCHAPTER
= I,V exp[ [
13.
( k 3 - 1 - I ~11
PHOTODETECTORS
v .
P = I V = I,V exp ( k 3 - 1 - I ~ v .
AND SOLAR CELLS
( 1 09)
( 1 09)
The condition
67
for maximum
The condition for powerpower
maximum P,
can be

I , = II,pv,exp(pv,)
canobtained
Maximum-power operation point
= I,V,be

=I,( 1
, = I,pv,exp(pv,) =I,( 1 --
when
obtained
724
1 1
dPldV
when

-) -)
,
= 0,=or
dPldV
= F,I,,V,,=I,[V,,--I~(~
CHAPTER
,
0, or 1
13.
P
+ p v m >AND
PHOTODETECTORS
(110)
(110)
- - SOLAR
P
, 'I
where the fill factor FFmeasures P V mP V mthe sharpness of the curve and is define
P, = I,V, = F,I,,V,,=I,[V,,--I~(~1 +
acirera@ub.edu
724 CHAPTER 13. PHOTODETECTORS AND SOLAR m Vm
P
F =-ICELLS
where the fill factor FFmeasures the sharpness of the c

'PI
-ISCVOC.
where where p = The
p = qIkT. qIkT.maximum
The maximum
powerpower P, isP,then
output
output is then F =-I m Vm
In practice,
P, = I,V, a good
= fill factor is around
F,I,,V,,=I,[V,,--I~(~ 1 0.8. The
+pvm>-- ,ideal conversion efficienc
(112)
of the maximum power output toPthe incident power Pin,
-ISCVOC.

In practice, a good fill factor is around 0.8. The ideal con

where the fill factor FFmeasures the sharpness of the curve and is defined as
of the maximum power output to the incident power Pi
F =-I m Vm
(113)
-ISCVOC.
Theoretically, the ideal efficiency can be calculated. We have shown t
In practice, a good fill factor is around 0.8. The ideal conversion
Theoretically, efficiency
the ideal is the
efficiency can ratio
be calculated.
tocurrent increases with smallerpower
of the maximum power output to the incidenttocurrent
Eg. On the other
increases
Pin,
hand,Eg.
with smaller theOnvoltage
the otherincre
hand,
by having a small saturationbycurrent. So tosaturation
having a small maximize theSo
current. power, the
to maximiz
optimum value for the bandgapoptimum value for the bandgap
Eg. Furthermore, Eg. Furthermore,
by using by usi
the ideal satura
of Eq. 108 in relation to Eg,the theoretical maximum
of Eq. 108 in relation to Eg,the theoretical maximum conversion effici

Solar Cells
Optoelectronic
Applications
Development

68
1st Generation: large-area p-n (or p-i-n) diode on silicon wafer, 85% market

acirera@ub.edu 2nd Generation: p-n but thin-film on sc (a-Si, p-Si, CdTe, CIGS) Cheaper !

3rd Generation: disruptive ideas such QDs, DSC … in tandem or concentrators !


Solar Cells
Optoelectronic
Applications

69

acirera@ub.edu

Optoelectronic Applications
Optoelectronic
Applications
1.  Photodetectors (photoconductors, photodiodes)
2.  Solar cells
70
3.  LEDs

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 plications, in traffic and automotive signals and in illumination. Another im
portant device making use of radiative recombination in a forward-biased p-
junction is the semiconductor laser. As we shall see in Section 8.4, lasers em
Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs
coherent light in much narrower wavelength bands than LEDs, with more co
Optoelectronic limation (directionality), and are very useful for fiber-optic communicatio
systems, as described in Section 8.2.2.
Applications
For LEDs, the frequency (color) of the photon is governed by the ban
gap of the semiconductor as given by the Planck relation, hv = Eg, which,
appropriate units, can be expressed as Eg (eV) = 1.24/X (fxm). A very im
71 portant metric of an LED is the external quantum efficiency rjexl, which is d
fined as the light output divided by the electrical input power:

i7ext = (Internal radiative efficiency) X (Extraction efficiency) (8-

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The internal efficiency is a function of the quality of the material and th
structure and composition of the layer. Defects in the material will clear
lead to nonradiative recombination. However, even if the internal efficie
cy is high, not all emitted photons are extracted from the LED. The emitte
photons from an LED have a wide angular distribution, unlike those in
laser. For example, if an LED had a planar surface, the photons incident o
the semiconductor-air interface at angles greater than a critical angle wou
undergo total internal reflection and ultimately be lost via absorption wit
in the semiconductor. Hence, typically, LEDs are made with a dome-type e
capsulation, which acts as a lens so that more of the photons can b
extracted.

8.2.1 Light-Emitting Materials

The band gaps of various binary compound semiconductors are illustrate

 Figure 2 schematically demonstrates the basic recombination transitions of excess
carriers in a semiconductor. These transitions may be classified as follows. The first
classification [label (l)] is the interband transition: (a) intrinsic emission corre-
sponding very closely in energy to the bandgap, and (b) higher-energy emission

604 Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs

CHAPTER 12. LEDs AND LASERS
involving energetic or hot carriers, sometimes related to avalanche emission. The
second classification (2) is the transitions involving chemical impurities or physical

Optoelectronic defects; (a) conduction band to acceptor-type defect, (b) donor-type defect to valence
band, (c) donor-type to acceptor-type defects (pair emission), and (d) band-to-band
Before After
Applications via deep-level traps. The third classification (3) is the intraband transition involving
hot carriers, sometimes called deceleration emission or Auger process. Not all transi-

-
A tions can occur in the same material or under the same conditions, and not all transi-
E2
tions are radiative. An efficient luminescent material is one in which radiative
hv transitions predominate over nonradiative ones such as the Auger nonradiative
,.-,,-- Absorption
recombination where the band-to-band recombination energy is transferred to a hot
72 electron or hole excited within a band.2 In comparison, it will be shown that band-to-
El
(4 band recombination [(a) in (l)] is the most probable radiative process.

T,.-,,--
Solar cell or Photodetector
12.2.1 Emission Spectra
acirera@ub.edu There are three main optical processes for interaction between a photon and an elec-
tron in a solid (Fig. 3): (a) A photon may be absorbed by the excitation of an electron
" -
Spontaneous hv
from a filled state in the valence band to an empty state in the conduction band. (b)
emission
An electron in the conduction band can spontaneously return to an empty state in the
A valence band (recombination), with the emission of a photon. This process (b) is thus
El
(b)
LED

hv
"
w
Stimulated
-
emission

El
--.---+ h v
hv T-
A
1 1

Laser
(c)

Fig. 3 The three basic optical processes between two energy levels. The black dot indicates
the state of the electron. The initial state is at the left; the final state, after the process has
occurred, is at the right.

the reverse of process (a), and (c) the incoming photon can stimulate the emission of

Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs
Optoelectronic
Applications
Injection Luminiscence: direct band gap
Materials
GAP engineering

73

acirera@ub.edu
nificantly increased. It will be shown later that with increased carrier con-
erojunctions or three layers of materials such that the middle layer has the lowest E,
, the radiative recombination lifetime is shortened, leading
for an electron well , for aobtained
toEmore-effi-
or the highest hole well. Afrom
quantum the
wellconduction-band
thus confines
solution for theelectrons
wavefunction
are free to of the S
tive recombination. In this configuration, move
electrons or holes in a two-dimensional (2-D) system. When
thein central layer is undoped,
a bulk semiconductor in all directions (3-D), their energy above the conduc-
Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs
tion-band edge is continuous, given by the relationship to their momentum (Eq. 8):

Optoelectronic
Applications Homostructures vs Heterostructures
In a quantum well, carriers are confined in one direction, say in the x-coordinate such
that k, = 0. It will be shown that the energy within this well is no longer continuous
with respect to the x-direction, but becomes quantized in subbands.
Type I
The most-important parameters for a quantum well are the well width L, and well
height 4b. The energy-band diagram in Fig. 35a shows Ecthat the potential barrier is
74 obtained from the conduction-band and valence-band offsets (AE, and AE,). The
solution for the wavefunction of the Schrodinger equation inside the well is

Ev I
acirera@ub.edu

I
(a)
Ec Ec
Fig. 34 Classification of heterojunction
Ev I '
orEvstaggered heterojunction. (c) Type-111
EV

- Type II Type III

(a) (b) (c)

-p-AIGaAs -1i-GaAsL n-AlGaAs

Fig. 34 Classification of heterojunctions. (a) Type-I or straddling heterojunction. (b) Type41
or staggered heterojunction. (c) Type-111 or broken-gap heterojunction.

Higher carrier densities and

Improved carrier confine

Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs
Optoelectronic
Applications Internal Quantum Efficiency

75

For low injection level

acirera@ub.edu
(Rec ≈ 10-10 cm3/s for direct-band gap,
Rec ≈ 10-15 cm3/s for indirect-band gap )

For high injection level lifetime decrease with injected carriers …

heterostructures! Improved internal quantum efficiency !!!

External Quantum Efficiency

 With this factored in, the net external quantum efficiency is defined a
number of photons emitted externally -
"' = number of carriers passing junction - VinVop

Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs The optical efficiency is a subject of optics inside and around the
Optoelectronic independent of electrical phenomena. We focus on the device op
optical interfaces in the following section.
Applications External Quantum Efficiency
Optical Efficiency. First we present the basic law of refraction w
through the semiconductor-ambient interface, shown in Fig. 13. Mo
tant phenomena arise from Snell's law, which states that the direction
(0,) and after ( 0,>the interface is governed by
76

acirera@ub.edu

Power Efficiency
Fig. 13 Optical paths at the semiconductodambient interface. A: Normal i
effect. B: Angles of refraction (8, > 8,) corresponding to Snell's law. C: Ray
escape cone (8, > 8,) has total reflection.

Luminous Efficiency

Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs
Optoelectronic
Applications Double Heterojunction
13.2. Device Physics, Structures, and Characteristics of LEDs 469

77

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Figure 13.8. A schematic drawing of a double-heterostructure (DH) LED consisting of

a bulk or multiquantum well (MQW) active region and two confinement layers. The con-
finement layers are often called the cladding layers, which are formed by wider-band-gap
materials than those in the active layer. After E. F. Schubert.2

with x > 0.7. The top contact layer, usually GaP or AlGaAs, serves as both a
current-spreading layer and a window layer to improve extraction of light directed
toward the side of the chip. The structure shown in Figure 13.9a is an AS LED.

Light Emitting Diodes, LEDs
Optoelectronic
Applications

78

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