Internationalisation strategies and national policies

Internationalisation strategies will be outlined in the first part of this section. In the
second part of this section, national policies will be described. It is clear that the role of
the government and national policies is of utmost importance in the internationalisation
of higher education. There will be given examples related to the internationalisation of
the HE system in Azerbaijan. Moreover, internationalisation strategies will be analysed
with regard to international partnerships within the Tempus and Erasmus programmes
and the integration into the Bologna principles in the fourth chapter.

Strategies

Globalisation leads to the challenges in HE systems of the world (cited in Zolfaghari et

al., 2009). These challenges can be figured out through the internationalisation
strategies. According to Zolfaghari et al. (2009), “The strategies are applied to describe
the activities done by a university to integrate a global aspect into research , teaching,
service functions, management policies and systems” (p. 4). An analytical framework
of internationalisation strategies is presented by Knight (2008) which focuses on
institutional and national levels. According to Knight (2008), ‘strategies’ indicate the
most concrete level and comprise the academic and organizational initiatives at the
institutional level.

Strategies at the institutional level imply both program and organizational initiatives
(Knight, 2008). Strategies are divided into two groups at institutional level such as
academic and organizational strategies (ibid.). Academic strategies focus on academic
programmes, research and scholarly collaboration, external relations: domestic and
cross-border and extra-curricular activities (Murshudova, 2011). Academic
programmes involve student exchange programmes, foreign language study,
work/study abroad, and link between academic programmes; research and scholarly
collaboration; external relations: domestic and cross-border; extracurricular activities
(ibid.).

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Organizational strategies include governance, operations, services and human
resources (Knight, 2008). Governance mainly focuses on the active participation of
faculty and staff, recognition of the international dimension in institutional
mission/mandate statements and in planning, management (ibid.). Additionally, it
indicates the importance of operations which highlights appropriate organizational
structures, systems for coordination, communication and cooperation, adequate
financial support and resource allocation systems (ibid.). Furthermore, it emphasizes
the services which are based on student housing, fundraising and alumni (ibid.).
Moreover, it points out the information technology involvement of academic support
units and human resources which involve recruitment and selection procedures and
faculty and staff professional development activities (ibid.).

According to Zolfaghari et al. (2009), the key aim of internationalisation strategies of

higher education is to participate in the different educational and research programmes.
It is possible to highlight that Azerbaijan mainly focuses on the implementation of the
international educational programmes and building international partnerships in order
to achieve internationalisation of the HE system. In this respect, Azerbaijan underlines
the importance of students, pupils and master exchange programmes, joint scientific
research, international and interregional education programmes in the
internationalisation of the HE system (MoE).   Furthermore, Azerbaijan actively
participates in the implementation of international educational programmes such as
Erasmus and Tempus. Azerbaijan has joined the Erasmus programme which promotes
the cooperation among HEIs, deals with students’ and educators’ exchange and
improves the reputation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) (MoE,
2009a). Moreover, Azerbaijani HEIs have close links with the Tempus programme
which is funded by the European Union in terms of cooperation between Azerbaijan
and international organizations such as UNESCO, UNICEF, the Council of Europe and
others (MoE). The Tempus programme deals with student exchange, expert training,
organizes overseas training courses for teachers and provides HEIs with the modern
information technologies and education equipment (ibid.). In 2008, NIROA (Network
of international relations offices in Azerbaijan) project was established in order to
develop the links between national and international HEIs in terms of student and staff
training, quality assurance, establishment of international relations offices and others
(Tempus NIROA, 2008).

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National policies

Murshudova (2011) notes that the most of the literature related the internationalisation
strategies mainly focus on the institutional lens rather than national policy lens.
However, there is a relationship between internationalisation and national higher
education policy (Van der Wende, 2001). It is clear that internationalisation does not
only focus on the mobility of students and teachers, but also on higher education policy
(ibid.). Obviously, internationalisation has become a key dimension in national higher
education policy (ibid.).

Van der Wende (2001) analysed the progress in internationalisation with regard to
national higher education policies in six European countries. According to Van der
Wende (2001), the structured integration of international dimension into European
higher education was demonstrated in the Bologna declaration. Murshudova (2011)
highlights Van der Wende’s (2001) study which has indicated the significance of
economic rationale over the five years. However, each country has its own economic
aims and interests (ibid.).

It is possible to say that globalisation influences national higher education policy

(Murshudova, 2011). Some hold the view that national governments have a great
impact on the creation of the frameworks and prospects for the internationalisation of
the higher education (ibid.). Marginson and Van der Wende (2009) argue that many of
the HEIs depend on governmental legitimation and resource support. Murshudova
(2011) suggests that the role of national governments should be taken in consideration
in the internationalisation frameworks and strategies. This particularly happens with
highly centralized education systems such as Azerbaijani HE system (ibid.).

In 2005, Azerbaijan has joined the Bologna process which can influence the national
higher education system (MoE). The Bologna process was launched in 1999 in order to
respond to the challenges of higher education graduates’ employment and the growing
international competition in higher education (Van der Wende, 2001). Azerbaijan has
implemented a variety of projects under the Tempus and Erasmus programmes and
made changes to the HE system in regard to Bologna principles. However, it must be
noted that there is a gap between the intentions by the officials and capabilities which

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influence the implementation of the Bologna principles in post-Soviet transition
countries such as Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Georgia and others (Kwiek, 2004).
Countries which move from centrally planned to market-oriented economies are called
transition countries (World Bank Group, 2004). Murshudova (2011) argues that most
of the internationalisation strategies do not consider the local context in the post-Soviet
states. It is possible to note that the successful implementation of the Bologna
principles can be prevented by the local systems (ibid.). Although the Bologna
principles were produced in order to respond to the challenges in education system in
all of Europe, this European response is impractical in transition countries (Ohanyan,
2011b). Ohanyan (2011b) holds the view that poor governance, highly centralized
education system and unsuccessful governmental practices inhibit the successful
implementation of the Bologna principles in the post-communist world. Murshudova
(2011) argues that although the countries where the Bologna principles were
implemented in the education system produce annual reports on the implementation of
the Bologna principles, policy makers need to thoroughly analyse and study the
improvements in their countries within the framework of the Bologna process. The
study of the improvements can re-evaluate and adapt the frameworks of the Bologna
process in accordance with the needs and challenges of less developed transitioning
higher education systems (ibid.).

Internationalisation of the higher education system in Azerbaijan

There is a lack of literature on the internationalisation of Azerbaijani HE system. As I

mentioned above, the literature is in Russian or Azerbaijani and it is difficult to access
this literature because most of them are not published in international journals.
However, it is possible to find some publications in English. For instance, Isaxanli
(2006), Mustafayev (2008) and Murshudova (2011) have analysed the HE system of
Azerbaijan and the internationalisation process. I will mainly focus on the articles by
these authors. This section will analyse the historical background of Azerbaijani HE
system and will define the current challenges in the internationalisation process of the
HE system.

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As it was mentioned above, Azerbaijani HE system went through three periods. In the
first period (1918-1920), Azerbaijan State University was established in 1919 although
it did not foster the national education system (Isaxanli, 2006a). In the second period
(1921-1991), it became a part of the former Soviet Union which influenced economy,
politics, education and other areas (ibid.). In the last period, the former Soviet Union
collapsed in 1991 and the post-Soviet states became independent. In this sense, those
countries seek to internationalise of the HE system in order to meet the requirements of
globalisation (ibid.).

The former Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and 15 republics gained their independence
(Isaxanli, 2006a). Post-Soviet republics such as Azerbaijan have been exposed to
political chaos, economic crisis, endemic state crisis, crime, corruption, ethnic tensions,
competition over energy sources and social collapse after the fall of the socialist public
and political system in the early 1990 and the collapse of the Soviet Union
(Development concept, 2012; Silova et al., 2007). Furthermore, Azerbaijan faced
military aggression and 20% of its territory was occupied by Armenia (Development
concept, 2012). Clearly, all these historical events have influenced the development of
the country in the field of economy, education and politics.

It can be said that the transition countries such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
Armenia and others have experienced significant disruption and deterioration in main
areas of human development such as “demographic trends, economic performance,
employment prospects, health services, gender equality and education” (Silova, 2002,
p.1). However, transition period has led to new perspectives for the post-Soviet states
with regard to the re-examination of the Soviet legacy and reposition themselves as
newly democratic countries in an independent world (ibid.).

The Soviet degree system consisted of “five year training towards specialist diploma
and 3-4 years of study for first doctorate (Candidate of Sciences), and second
(advanced) doctorate (Doctor of Sciences)” (Smolentseva, 2012, p. 25). Since gaining
independence, the post-Soviet states have introduced new bachelor-master degree
system (ibid.). Some countries such as Kazakhstan, Georgia and others adopted
western three-tier system and eradicated the second doctorate degree (Isaxanli, 2006a).
In this manner, the Law on Education was adopted in 1992  after the fall of the former
Soviet Union (ibid.). Isaxanli (2006a) writes,

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 New policy directions included a modification of the highly centralized system, the
incorporation of national and market economy perspectives within the curriculum,
and the encouragement of parental and community participation in education (p.
120-121).

The adoption of the Law on Education resulted in the establishment of a two-cycle HE

system which comprises bachelor and master degrees. As this system was not
implemented stage by stage and it was done in the form of ‘a quick national-scale
campaign’, it was not successful (Isaxanli, 2006b). Therefore, Azerbaijani HEIs could
not distinguish the goals, context and distinctions between the bachelor and master
degree programmes (ibid.).

Meanwhile, the new Law on Education which introduced a three-cycle higher

education system was adopted in 2009 (Tempus, 2012). Since the adoption of the new
law, Azerbaijani HE system consists of the following levels (ibid, p. 2).
1. Undergraduate (with the exception of medical studies): bakalavriat;
2. Post-graduate (with the exception of medical studies): magistratura;
3. Doctorate: (doktorantura)

It is clear that the former Soviet Union had a great impact on education system of the
post-Soviet states such as Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, and others.
The break-up of the former Soviet Union has led to the challenges and prospects for
these countries which never experienced independence in terms of democratic ideals
(Silova, 2002). In this fashion, it was required to change the education structure and
curriculum and to modernize education system in accordance with international
standards (Heyneman, 2010). In 1991, none of modern technologies were used at HEIs
(ibid.). Furthermore, there were some problems in the HE system such as student
preparedness which did not meet market needs, poor libraries, a lack of private and
international textbooks, teaching methods which based on only lectures, a lack of
access to international journals, centralized education system and standardized
examinations which were held at each university distinctly, low salaries, language of
instruction which was only Russian in all republics and a deficiency of innovations in
the field of science and engineering (ibid.).  After gaining independence, Azerbaijan has
encountered many problems in the field of education (Mammadov, 2012). There was a
need to eliminate these problems with regard to the requirements of globalisation in the

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field of education in post-Soviet republics. It is possible to note that these problems
have led to the barriers for the internationalisation process. In this fashion, the state
program on the reforms in Azerbaijani HE system was adopted in 2009 (MoE, 2009b).
In the fourth chapter, the above-mentioned problems will be explored through the
analysis of this state program.

It is clear that internationalisation of the education system was not an easy task for
those republics which were the parts of the former Soviet Union for nearly 70 years
(Silova et al., 2007). It is important to say that each of these post-Soviet republics
struggles to change the past educational values and principles in different ways (ibid.).
Since gaining independence, Azerbaijan has striven for integration into the European
Higher Education Area (EHEA) with regard to the Bologna process and collaboration
with international educational programmes and international organizations in order to
contribute to the economy and to be recognized in the international arena and to be
competitive in a world market (Isaxanli, 2006a). The Bologna process and the Tempus
and Erasmus programmes will be further developed in the following section.

The Bologna process and international educational programmes in

regard to the internationalisation of the HE system
 

In order to integrate into the European HE system and to achieve the recognition of the
country in the international arena, Azerbaijan joined the Bologna process in 2005
(MoE). Furthermore, Azerbaijan cooperates with the educational programmes of the
European Union such as Tempus and Erasmus. In this section, the role of the Bologna
process and Tempus and Erasmus programmes in the internationalisation of the HE
system will be explored.

The Bologna process is often called revolutionary process which involves cooperation
in European Higher Education Area (EHEA). The Ministers of Education and
university leaders of 29 countries launched this process and signed the Bologna
declaration in 1999 in order to establish a European Higher Education Area (EHEA) by
2010 (EUA). Then 17 countries have joined this process (ibid.). The Bologna process
aims “to strengthen the competitiveness and attractiveness of the European higher

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education and to foster student mobility and employability through the introduction of
a system based on undergraduate and postgraduate studies with easily readable
programmes and degrees “(EHEA, 2014).

Furthermore, it is believed that the Bologna process has generated convergence in the
structure of national higher education systems (EACEA, 2010). Moreover, the Bologna
process consists of a number of tools which aim to improve transparency and mutual
recognition (ibid.). It can be said that quality assurance (QA) is one of the main tools
of the Bologna process which means to maintain or enhance quality in higher
education through the implementation of related policies, procedures and practices
(EHEA, 2014; EACEA, 2012). In addition to quality assurance, ECTS (European
Credit Transfer and Accumulation System), Diploma Supplement (DS) and National
Qualification Frameworks (NQF) can be considered main tools of the Bologna process
(EACEA, 2010).

As partnership is of particular importance in the Bologna process, some of the post-

Soviet states such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine joined this process in
2005, at Bergen conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education
(Bergen, 2005). In this conference, the establishment of a European Research Area in
addition to the European Higher Education Area and preparation of joint masters and
doctoral programmes was suggested with regard to the advancement of the Bologna
Joint Declaration (UNESCO, 2005). Moreover, doctorate degree was accepted as the
third cycle of higher education after the two cycles (ibid.).

Azerbaijan aims to internationalise HE system through the integration into the

European Higher Education Area and recognition in the international arena in regard to
the implementation of the Bologna principles (MoE). In this sense, after joining the
Bologna process, the Ministry of Education developed an action plan to modernize the
HE system, to transfer to the credit system, to elaborate new diploma supplements in
accordance with the UNESCO recommendations and to recognize international
documents on higher education in Azerbaijan (Mustafayev, 2008). It must be noted
that transfer to the credit system was based on the ECTS which was created at the end
of the 1980s in order to simplify credit transfer in the Erasmus programme and to boost
student mobility (EACEA, 2010). Furthermore, ECTS is based on student workload
and learning outcomes (Benelux, 2009). In addition to ECTS, the European

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Commission, the Council of Europe and UNESCO-CEPES developed the Diploma
supplement in order to increase the transparency in education (EACEA, 2010).
Moreover, National Qualifications Framework (NQF) was established in order to
improve mobility and employability (Benelux, 2009). The NQF focuses on the learning
outcomes which are “the common language that is used in the Dublin descriptors
which are the basis of the three-cycle degree system” (Benelux, 2009, p. 15). In the
fourth chapter, the tools of the Bologna process such as ECTS, DS, QA and NQF were
analysed in accordance with Azerbaijani HE system (EACEA, 2010).

In addition to the Bologna process, Azerbaijan participates in the projects under the
Tempus and Erasmus programmes. In 1995, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and
Mongolia joined this programme (EACEA, 2013a). Azerbaijan implemented a wide
range of Tempus projects which promoted the modernization process at HEIs and were
considered the only way of the implementation of the Bologna principles (Tempus,
2012). It is noted that more than 80% of the Tempus projects tended to improve the
curriculum and university management system (ibid.). In addition to curriculum
development and university management, quality assurance (QA) is also one of the
central points in the Bologna process and numerous Tempus projects have been carried
out in the field of QA (ibid.).

It is essential to point out that the implementation of the Tempus programme is linked
with the Erasmus programme. In this fashion, Azerbaijan joined the Erasmus
programme in 2005 and actively participates in the implementation of this programme
(MoE). Obviously, the Tempus and Erasmus programmes are closely linked with the
Bologna process. In this regard, a variety of training programmes and national
seminars was implemented to be sure that “the Bologna principles are adopted and
adapted to local conditions” (Mustafayev, 2008, p. 1). However, Murshudova (2011)
argues that the challenges in Azerbaijani HE system show that the local context of the
country was not considered in the implementation of the Bologna principles. One of
the main challenges in Azerbaijani HE system is centralization in education system
which directly influences the implementation of the Bologna principles (Isaxanli,
2006a). Most of the post-Soviet states experience the similar problem of centralized
education system and administration (ibid.). Isaxanli (2006b) highlights, “Application
of tightly centralized administration hinders dynamic development of higher education
institutions and impedes their capability to compete and respond rapidly to the needs of

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the changing environment” (p. 6). Additionally, Silova et al. (2007) state, “Overall, the
period since independence in 1991 has been characterized by an acute sense of drift or
crisis in educational policy, as various internal actors and external or multilateral
institutions struggled to create ‘new’ and autonomous educational systems out of what
had been a tightly integrated and highly standardized system in the Soviet Period” (p.
164-165). In his detailed study, Isaxanli (2006a) highlighted the importance of having
autonomy in European Universities. As Azerbaijan strives to enter the EHEA, it needs
to consider the independence of universities. Clearly, universities should have
autonomy to frame their strategies, list fields of studies and programmes, and select
faculty members and students in consistency with their own standards (UNESCO,
2005). In addition to Isaxanli’s (2006a) views, Ohanyan (2011b) states,

Centralized governance undermines the much-needed local ownership and

innovation of universities and, thereby, weakens the prospects of effective
implementation of the Bologna reforms (p. 4).

Furthermore, Ohanyan (2011a) argues that the Bologna process was established to
solve the European challenges. In this manner, it can be impractical in the post-Soviet
states such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Armenia and others which do not have
any similarities between their education systems and European educations systems.
Obviously, the discrepancy in the aims, priorities and initiatives is rooted from the big
difference between the Western education systems which support the Bologna reforms
and the post-Soviet legacies (Ohanyan, 2011b).

In this chapter, I have discussed the concepts ‘globalisation’ and ‘internationalisation’,

the rationales drive internationalisation, the internationalisation strategies, the
internationalisation of Azerbaijani HE system and the impact of the Bologna process
on the HE system. In the fourth chapter, I will focus on the analysis of one official
document and research paper and interviews conducted with four university teachers
from Azerbaijan.

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