B.F. SKINNER
Skinner called this operant
American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for
developing the theory of behaviorism, and for his utopian
novel Walden Two (1948).
Skinner referred to his own philosophy as 'radical
behaviorism' and suggested that the concept of free will was
simply an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was
the direct result of conditioning.
Born in Pennsylvania in 1904, psychologist B.F. Skinner
began working on ideas of human behavior after earning his
doctorate from Harvard. Skinner's works include The
Behavior of Organisms (1938) and a novel based on his
theories Walden Two (1948). He explored behaviorism in
relation to society in later books, including Beyond Freedom
and Human Dignity (1971). Skinner died in Massachusetts in
1990.
EARLY LIFE
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in the
small town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, where he also grew
up. His father was a lawyer and his mother stayed home to
care for Skinner and his younger brother. At an early age,
Skinner showed an interest in building different gadgets and
contraptions.
As a student at Hamilton College, B.F. Skinner developed a
passion for writing. He tried to become a professional writer
after graduating in 1926, but with little success. Two years
later, Skinner decided to pursue a new direction for his life. He
enrolled at Harvard University to study psychology.
INVENTIONS
During his time at Harvard, Skinner became interested in
studying human behavior in an objective and scientific way.
He developed what he referred to as an operant conditioning
apparatus, which later become known as a "Skinner box." The
device was a chamber that contained a bar or key that an
animal could press in order to receive food, water, or some
other form of reinforcement.
It was during this time at Harvard that he also invented the
cumulative recorder, a device that recorded responses as a
sloped line. By looking at the slope of the line, which
indicated the rate of response, Skinner was able to see that
response rates depended upon what happened after the animal
pressed the bar. That is, higher response rates followed
rewards while lower response rates followed a lack of
rewards. The device also allowed Skinner to see that the
schedule of reinforcement that was used also influenced the
rate of response.
Using this device, he found that behavior did not depend on
the preceding stimulus as Watson and Pavlov maintained.
Instead, Skinner found that behaviors were dependent on what
happens after the response.
behavior.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
In Skinner's operant conditioning process, an operant referred
to any behavior that acts on the environment and leads to
consequences. He contrasted operant behaviors (the actions
under our control) with respondent behaviors, which he
described as anything that occurs reflexively or automatically
such as jerking your finger back when you accidentally touch
a hot pan.
Skinner identified reinforcement as any event that strengthens
the behavior it follows. The two types of reinforcement he
identified were positive reinforcement (favorable outcomes
such as reward or praise) and negative reinforcement (the
removal of unfavorable outcomes).
Punishment can also play an important role in the operant
conditioning process. According to Skinner, punishment is the
application of an adverse outcome that decreases or weakens
the behavior it follows. Positive punishment involves
presenting an unfavorable outcome (prison, spanking,
scolding) while negative punishment involves removing a
favorable outcome following a behavior (taking away a
favorite toy, getting grounded).
PROJECT PIGEON
Skinner took a teaching position at the University of
Minnesota following his marriage. While teaching at the
University of Minnesota and during the height of World War
II, Skinner became interested in helping with the war effort.
He received funding for a project that involved training
pigeons to guide bombs since no missile guidance systems
existed at the time.
In "Project Pigeon," as it was called, pigeons were placed in
the nose cone of a missile and were trained to peck at a target
that would then direct the missile toward the intended target.
The project never came to fruition, since the development of
radar was also underway, although Skinner had considerable
success working with the pigeons. While the project was
eventually canceled, it did lead to some interesting findings
and Skinner was even able to teach the pigeons to play ping-
pong.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also
discovered and described schedules of reinforcement:
1. Fixed-ratio schedules
The fixed-ratio schedule can be understood by looking at the
term itself. Fixed refers to the delivery of rewards on a
consistent schedule. Ratio refers to the number of responses
that are required in order to receive reinforcement. For
example, a fixed-ratio schedule might be delivery a reward for
every fifth response. After the subject responds to the stimulus
five times, a reward is delivered.
So imagine that you are training a lab rat to press a button in
order to receive a food pellet. You decide to put the rat on a
fixed-ratio 15 (FR-15) schedule. In order to receive the food
pellet, the rat must engage in the operant response (pressing
the button) 15 times before it will receive the food pellet. The
schedule is fixed, so the rat will consistently receive the pellet
every 15 times it presses the lever.
Examples of Fixed-Ratio Schedules
Production Line Work: Workers at a widget factory are paid
for every 15 widgets they make. This results in a high
production rate and workers tend to take few breaks. It can,
however, lead to burnout and lower-quality work.
Collecting Tokens in a Video Game: In many video games,
you have to collect so many tokens, object, or points in order
to receive some type of reward.
Sales Commissions: A worker earns a commission for every
third sale that they make.
Grades: A child is offered a reward after they earn five A’s on
her homework assignments. After her fifth A on a homework
assignment, she gets to pick out a new toy.
Piecework: Jobs that require X amount of responses in order
to receive compensation. For example, a worker receives X
amount of dollars for every 100 envelopes they stuff or every
100 fliers they stick on windshields.
Farm work: Farm workers are paid X amount of dollars for
every basket of fruit that they pick.
2. Variable-ratio schedules
a variable-ratio schedule with a VR 5 schedule, an animal
might receive a reward for every five responses, on average.
This means that sometimes the reward can come after three
responses, sometimes after seven responses, sometimes after
five responses, and so on. The reinforcement schedule will
average out to be rewarded for every five responses, but the
actual delivery schedule will remain completely unpredictable.
 Slot machines: Players have no way of knowing how
many times they have to play before they win. All they
know is that eventually, a play will win. This is why slot
machines are so effective, and players are often reluctant
to quit. There is always the possibility that the next coin
they put in will be the winning one.
 Sales bonuses: Call centers often offer random bonuses to
employees. Workers never know how many calls they
need to make to receive the bonus, but they know that
they increase their chances the more calls or sales they
make.
 Door-to-door sales: The salesperson travels from house to
house, but never knows when they are going to find an
interested buyer. It could be the next house, or it might
take multiple stops to find a new customer.
 Video games: In some games, players collect tokens or
other items in order to receive a reward or reach the next
level. The player may not know how many tokens they
need in order to receive a reward or even what that reward
will be.
3. Fixed-interval schedules
In order to better understand how a fixed-interval schedule
works, let's begin by taking a closer look at the term itself.
A schedule refers to the rate at which the reinforcement is
delivered or how frequently a response is reinforced. An
interval refers to a period of time, which suggests that the rate
of delivery is dependent upon how much time has elapsed.3
Finally, fixed suggests that the timing of delivery is set at a
predictable and unchanging schedule.
For example, imagine that you are training a pigeon to peck at
a key. You put the animal on a fixed-interval 30 schedule (FI-
30), which means that the bird will receive a food pellet every
30 seconds. The pigeon can continue to peck the key during
that interval but will only receive reinforcement for the first
peck of the key after that fixed 30-second interval has elapsed.
Examples
 Imagine that you are training a rat to press a lever, but
you only reinforce the first response after a ten-minute
interval. The rat does not press the bar much during the
first 5 minutes after reinforcement but begins to press the
lever more and more often the closer you get to the ten-
minute mark.
 A weekly paycheck is a good example of a fixed-interval
schedule. The employee receives reinforcement every
seven days, which may result in a higher response rate as
payday approaches.
 Dental exams also take place on a fixed-interval schedule.
People who go in for their regular six-month checkup and
cleaning often take extra care to clean their teeth right
before the exam, yet may not be as diligent on a day to
day basis during the six months prior to the exam.
4. Variable-interval schedules
To understand how a variable-interval schedule works, let's
start by taking a closer look at the term itself. Schedule refers
to the rate of reinforcement delivery, or how frequently the
reinforcement is given. Variable indicates that this timing is
not consistent and may vary from one trial to the next. Finally,
interval means that delivery is controlled by time. So, a
variable-interval schedule means that reinforcement is
delivered at varying and unpredictable intervals of time.
Imagine that you are training a pigeon to peck at a key to
receive a food pellet. You put the bird on a variable-interval
30 (VI-30) schedule. This means that the pigeon will receive
reinforcement an average of every 30 seconds. It is important
to note that this is an average, however. Sometimes the pigeon
might be reinforced after 10 seconds; sometimes it might have
to wait 45 seconds. The key is that the timing is unpredictable.
Examples
 Checking Your Email: Typically, you check your email at
random times throughout the day instead of checking
every time a single message is delivered. The thing about
email is that in most cases, you never know when you are
going to receive a message. Because of this, emails roll in
sporadically at completely unpredictable times. When you
check and see that you have received a message, it acts as
a reinforce for checking your email.
 Your Employer Checking Your Work: Does your boss
drop by your office a few times throughout the day to
check your progress? This is an example of a variable-
interval schedule. These check-ins occur at unpredictable
times, so you never know when they might happen. The
chances are good that you work at a fairly steady pace
throughout the day since you are never quite sure when
your boss is going to pop in, and you want to appear busy
and productive when she does happen to stop by.
Immediately after one of these check-ins, you might
briefly pause and take a short break before resuming your
steady work pace.
 Pop Quizzes: Your psychology instructor might issue
periodic pop quizzes to test your knowledge and to make
sure you are paying attention in class. While these exams
occur with some frequency, you never really know
exactly when he might give you a pop quiz. One week
you might end up taking two quizzes, but then go a full
two weeks without one. Because you never know when
you might receive a pop quiz, you will probably pay
attention and stay caught up in your studies to be
prepared.
SKINNER BOX
At Harvard, B.F. Skinner looked for a more objective and
measured way to study behavior. He developed what he called
an operant conditioning apparatus to do this, which became
better known as the Skinner box. With this device, Skinner
could study an animal interacting with its environment. He
first studied rats in his experiments, seeing how the rodents
discovered and used to a level in the box, which dispensed
food at varying intervals.
Later, Skinner examined what behavior patterns developed in
pigeons using the box. The pigeons pecked at a disc to gain
access to food. From these studies, Skinner came to the
conclusion that some form of reinforcement was crucial in
learning new behaviors.
After finishing his doctorate degree and working as a
researcher at Harvard, Skinner published the results of his
operant conditioning experiments in The Behavior of
Organisms (1938). His work drew comparisons to Ivan
Pavlov, but Skinner's work involved learned responses to an
environment rather than involuntary responses to stimuli.
BABY TENDER
In 1943, B.F. Skinner also invented the "baby tender" at the
request of his wife. It is important to note that the baby tender
is not the same as the "Skinner box," which was used in
Skinner's experimental research. He created the enclosed
heated crib with a plexiglass window in response to his wife's
request for a safer alternative to traditional cribs. Ladies Home
Journal printed an article on the crib with the title "Baby in a
Box," contributing in part to some misunderstanding over the
crib's intended use.
A later incident also led to further misunderstandings over
Skinner's baby crib. In her 2004 book Opening Skinner's Box:
Great Psychology Experiments of the Twentieth Century,
author Lauren Slater mentioned the oft-cited rumor that the
baby tender was actually used as an experimental device.1 The
rumors were that Skinner's daughter had served as a subject
and that she had committed suicide as a result. Slater's book
pointed out that this was nothing more than a rumor, but a
later review of the book mistakenly stated that her book
supported the claims. This led to an angry and passionate
rebuttal of the rumors by Skinner's very much alive and well
daughter Deborah.
In 1945, Skinner moved to Bloomington, Indiana and became
Psychology Department Chair at the University of Indiana. In
1948, he joined the psychology department at Harvard
University where he remained for the rest of his life.
TEACHING MACHINES
Skinner also developed an interest in education and teaching
after attending his daughter's math class in 1953. Skinner
noted that none of the students received any sort of immediate
feedback on their performance. Some students struggled and
were unable to complete the problems while others finished
quickly but really didn't learn anything new. Instead, Skinner
believed that the best approach would be to create some sort of
device that would shape behavior, offering incremental
feedback until a desired response was achieved.
He started by developing a math teaching machine that offered
immediate feedback after each problem. However, this initial
device did not actually teach new skills. Eventually, he was
able to develop a machine that delivered incremental feedback
and presented material in a series of small steps until students
acquired new skills, a process known as programmed
instruction. Skinner later published a collection of his writings
on teaching and education titled The Technology of Teaching.