EVOLUTION

of LIFE
Prepared by:
BALBEDINA, LOVELYN B.
 OBJECTIVES
▪ Discuss the historical development of the “Theory of Evolution”
as starting point for taxonomic classification of life;
▪ Describe the premises of evolution by natural selection as
proposed by Charles Darwin and other notable people;
▪ Enumerate the evidences for evolution.

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 What exactly is evolution?

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https://www.history.com/.image/t_share/MTcwOTI1NjI4MzM2MzgzMTIw/human-evolution-promo-gettyimages-122223741.jpg

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 But…

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https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images/wp-content/uploads/sites/1648/2016/04/27011415/phylogentic-tree.jpg
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https://sierraclub.typepad.com/.a/6a00d83451b96069e2017d3d2efe8b970c-pi
 MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Evolution is just a “theory”
2. The “Theory of Evolution” is not solely credited to Darwin
3. Missing link between apes and humans
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Evolution is not a linear process
6. Evolution always produce good outcomes to the organisms
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 MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Evolution is just a “theory”
2. The “Theory of Evolution” is not solely credited to Darwin
3. Missing link between apes and humans
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Evolution is not a linear process
6. Evolution always produce good outcomes to the organisms
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 MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Evolution is just a “theory”
2. The “Theory of Evolution” is not solely credited to Darwin
3. Missing link between apes and humans
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Evolution is not a linear process
6. Evolution always produce good outcomes to the organisms
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https://www.history.com/.image/t_share/MTcwOTI1NjI4MzM2MzgzMTIw/human-evolution-promo-gettyimages-122223741.jpg

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 MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Evolution is just a “theory”
2. The “Theory of Evolution” is not solely credited to Darwin
3. Missing link between apes and humans
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Evolution is not a linear process
6. Evolution always produce good outcomes to the organisms
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 MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Evolution is just a “theory”
2. The “Theory of Evolution” is not solely credited to Darwin
3. Missing link between apes and humans
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Evolution is not a linear process
6. Evolution always produce good outcomes to the organisms
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 MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Evolution is just a “theory”
2. The “Theory of Evolution” is not solely credited to Darwin
3. Missing link between apes and humans
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Evolution is not a linear process
6. Evolution always produce good outcomes to the organisms
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 So, if someone say that humans are best suited in this world
because they can adapt and change…

https://climate.nasa.gov/system/content_pages/main_images/1321_cc-vs-gw-vs-wx-768px.jpg https://www.sciencenews.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/031120_jl_coronavirus-pandemic_feat_1500.jpg

https://s1.ibtimes.com/sites/www.ibtimes.com/files/styles/full/public/2012/10/04/2011/08/05/143413-
chilling-images-of-human-mutation-across-the-world.jpg

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 What is Evolution?
• Change in species over time
• Evolutionary change in genes:
- change in chromosome number
- change in chromosome structure
- change in gene structure
- change in frequency
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 What is Evolution?
• Evolutionary processes:
- Variation
- Speciation
- Phylogeny

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 What is Evolution?
• VARIATION:
- is the deviation of structural, functional or developmental
characteristics of an organism from those typical or standard to
the group to which it belongs
- two types of variations includes the genotypic variation
and phenotypic variation
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 What is Evolution?
• Concepts of Variation:
- no two individuals are exactly alike
- variation provides raw materials for evolution
- variations are products of evolutionary mechanisms
- variation can be continuous or discontinuous
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 What is Evolution?
• SPECIATION:
- is an evolutionary process that lead to the formation of
biological species
- speciation involves development of new, different gene
combinations in separate population and formation of reproductive
isolating mechanisms of cross-fertilizing organisms

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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg

https://www3.beacon-center.org/blog/2016/07/04/artificial-selection-and-correlated-traits/

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 What is Evolution?
• Effect of Speciation:
- tremendous diversity of species on earth
- geographical (spatial), ecological (environmental), seasonal
(temporal), and mechanical isolation are some of the isolating
mechanisms that can lead to reproductive isolation, thus
speciation
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 What is Evolution?
• PHYLOGENY:
- is the geological history of a group of organisms,
representing ancestors or descendant relationship
- is expressed as branching diagram, the cladogram
- is based on the theory that all species descended from one
common primitive ancestor
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 What is Evolution?
• PHYLOGENY:
- organisms are conceptually classified according to a set of
defined characters and character states
- the characters of the organisms can be studied for
homology or homoplasy

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 What is Evolution?
• PHYLOGENY:
- Homology refers to characters or character states that are
similar due to common ancestry. Homoplasy refers to
nonhomologous similarity that can occur among taxa due to
convergence, also known as parallel evolution, or reversal called
retrogressive evolution
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 What is Evolution?
• PHYLOGENY:
- Taxa that share derived features are hypothesized to
do so by common ancestry, hence can form a
monophyletic group together with the common ancestor
and all descendants of that common ancestor.

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 What is Evolution?
• PHYLOGENY:
- Classification of organisms may be based directly on
their phylogenetic history
- The evolution of structural features of organisms may
also be based on the presumed phylogenetic relationships
of those organisms
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 NATURAL SELECTION
▪ OVERPRODUCTION
- Taken from Thomas Malthus’ (1766-1834) “Theory of
Geometric Population Growth.” Populations tend to increase
geometrically, whereas resources increases arithmetically.

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 NATURAL SELECTION
▪ STRUGGLE FOR LIFE
- Because more individuals are produced that can be supported
by the environment, a struggle for existence (e.g. competition for
food, space, etc.) ensues

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 NATURAL SELECTION
▪ VARIATION
- No two individuals are exactly alike. Individuals of the same
species differ from each other, and these variations are the result of
genetic recombination or radical change (mutation) through time

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 NATURAL SELECTION
▪ SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
- Some individuals have adaptive characters that make them
better able to survive the struggle for existence. The result is the
"survival of the fittest" and the "elimination of the weak"

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 EVOLUTIONS OF
POPULATIONS
• Population evolution is the smallest unit of evolution
• Natural selection acts on individuals, but populations evolve
• Genetic variations in populations contribute to the evolution
• Population genetics provides a foundation for studying evolution

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 EVOLUTIONS OF
POPULATIONS
▪ POPULATION GENETICS
- is the study of how populations change genetically over time
- reconciled Darwin’s and Mendel’s ideas
- the Modern Synthesis integrates Mendelian genetics with the
Darwinian’s theory of evolution by natural selection
- focuses on populations as units of evolution

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 EVOLUTIONS OF
POPULATIONS
▪ GENE POOL and ALLELE
MAP
AREA

FREQUENCIES
- a population is a localized group of
individuals that are capable of interbreeding
and producing fertile offspring •
Fairbanks

- a gene pool is the total aggregate of Fortymile

herd range •

genes in a population at any one time

Whitehorse

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 EVOLUTIONS OF
POPULATIONS
▪ HARDY-WEINBERG THEOREM
- describes a population that is not evolving
- states that the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population’s
gene pool remain constant from generation to generation provided that only
Mendelian segregation and recombination are at work

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 EVOLUTIONS OF
POPULATIONS
▪ HARDY-WEINBERG THEOREM
- Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium describes a population in which
random mating occurs
- It describes a population where allele frequencies do not change

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 EVOLUTIONS OF
POPULATIONS
▪ HARDY-WEINBERG THEOREM
- all phenotypes equal fitness, no natural selection
- no mutation
- no immigration or emigration
- no genetic drift
- no assertive mating
- describes a hypothetical population
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 MUTATIONS
• Changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
• Cause new genes and alleles to arise
• Is a change in one base of genes and create significant impact on
phenotype
• Is usually harmless, but may have an adaptive impact
• Chromosomal mutations that affect many loci are almost certain to be
harmful
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 GENETIC DRIFT
• Statistically, the smaller the sample, the greater the chance of
deviation from a predicted result
• Describes how allele frequencies can fluctuate unpredictably from
one generation to the next
• It tends to reduce genetic variation

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 GENETIC DRIFT
▪ BOOTLENECK EFFECT
- a sudden change in the environment may drastically reduce the size
population
- the gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original population’s
gene pool
- provides idea of how human affects other species

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https://d20khd7ddkh5ls.cloudfront.net/bottleneck_effect_3.jpg
 GENETIC DRIFT
▪ THE FOUNDER EFFECT
- occurs when a few individuals become isolated from larger population
- can affect allele frequencies in a population

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https://image.slidesharecdn.com/hardyweinbergapbiology-150310061648-conversion-gate01/95/microevolution-changing-allele-frequencies-22-
638.jpg?cb=1425986313

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 GENE FLOW
• Causes a population to gain or lose alleles
• Results from the movement of fertile individuals or gametes
• Tends to reduce differences between populations over time

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 https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Gene-flow.jpg

https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Gene-flow.jpg

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 GENE FLOW
▪ IMMIGRATION
- gene flow which involves entering a population (added)

▪ EMIGRATION
- gene flow which involves leaving a population (lost)

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https://i.pinimg.com/originals/7f/87/95/7f879560c1c58bd3e29ddf5533bb963a.jpg
 GENETIC VARIATION
• Natural selection is the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution
• Natural selection accumulates and maintains favorable genotypes in
a population
• Genetic variation occurs in individuals in populations of all species
• It is NOT always heritable

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 GENETIC VARIATION
▪ DISCRETE CHARACTERS
- can be classified on an either-or basis

▪ QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERS
- vary along a continuum within a population

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 EVIDENCES that supports
EVOLUTION

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 FOSSIL RECORDS
• Sedimentary rock
- layers occur in sequence of deposition
-recent layers on top of older ones
• Index fossil
- characterize specific layer
• Radioisotopes
- it accurately measure rock’s age
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 Sedimentary Rock

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 Fossil Index

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 Fossil Records

https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-
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 Radioisotopes: Carbon Dating

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 HOMOLOGOUS FEATURES
• Basic structural similarities, but structures may be used in different ways
• Derived from the same structure in common ancestors
• Indicate organism’s evolutionary affinities
• Analogous structures are those that look similar, but have different
origins

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 Homology in Animals

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 VISTIGIAL STRUCTURE
• Non-functional or degenerate remnants of structures functional in
ancestral organisms
• Structures occasionally become vestigial as species adapt to different
modes of life

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 Vestigial Structures

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 Vestigial Structures

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 Vestigial Structures

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 BIOGEOGRAPHY
• Geographic distribution of organisms, which affects evolution
• Areas separated from the rest of the world will contain organisms evolved
in isolation that is unique to those areas

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 CONTINENTAL DRIFT
• Movements of major land masses due to plate tectonics

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 Biogeography and Continental Drift

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/images/history/fossils3.gif

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https://study.com/cimages/videopreview/sample_01023827_110485.jpg

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 COEVOLUTION
• It is the change of a species caused by the pressures put on by a related
species. This can be both mutualistic and beneficial to both or one of the
species.

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 Coevolution
• Hummingbirds and trumpet flowers
have coevolved to ensure “successful
togetherness”. The trumpet flower has
red color, little fragrance and an upside-
down corolla tube

• Hummingbirds, on the other hand, are

attracted to red, pink and orange colors,
have poor sense of smell and “hover at”
rather than land on flowers.

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 Coevolution
• Another involves ants and acacia, where free
board and lodging are given in exchange for
army protection. Acacia trees have evolved large
hollow thorns to house the ants. They can
produce nectar in their flowers for adult ants
and a special food at their leaflet tips for the
insect larvae. In exchange, army ants learned to
successfully protect the tree from pests.
Moreover, they have developed the ability to
identify weeds, vines and growing seedlings and
clear them away at the base of the tree to
minimize competition.

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 COSPECIATION
• Speciation of two very close species likely to happen between parasites
and their host
• Parallel host and parasite phylogenies are used as evidence of cospeciating

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 Cospeciation
• Lice have few opportunities for
gopher-switching, and lice on gopher
lineage A don’t mate with lice living
on gopher lineage B

• This “geographic” isolation of the

louse lineages may cause them to
become reproductively isolated as
well, and hence, separate species

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 BIOCHEMICAL
• The sequence of unit parts of the hereditary chemicals in species that
may share evolutionary relationships:
Proteins
- many amino acids linked in a particular sequence
DNA
- many nucleotides, linked in a particular sequence of base pairs.
Differences in the sequence of these chemicals indicate changes that have
arisen during the process of evolution
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 Biochemical

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 REFERENCES
▪ Anestis et al. (2016). 5 Steps to A5 AP* Biology, McGraw-Hill Education,
ISBN: 978-0-07-185033-9
▪ Brooker R.J. (2012). Concepts of Genetics. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
ISBN: 978-0-07-352533-4
▪ Reece et al. (2014). Campbell Biology, Tenth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
ISBN 10: 1-269-75796-2
▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ci9jfMvoLb4
▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZt1Gn0R22Q

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