SubjectName&Code:-14EC801

RADARENGINEERING

Preparedby:D.Swetha
Asst.prof
ECEdepartment
1.Explain the prediction of Range Performance? 6M
Ans:The simple form of the radar equation expressed the maximum radar range R max, in terms of
radar and target parameters:

All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the radar designer, except for the
target cross section σ. The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired, the transmitted
power must be large, the radiated energy must be concentrated into a narrow beam (high
transmitting antenna gain), the received echo energy must be collected with a large antenna
aperture (also synonymous with high gain), and the receiver must be sensitive to weak signals.

In practice, however, the simple radar equation does not predict the range performance of actual
radar equipments to a satisfactory degree of accuracy. The predicted values of radar range are
usually optimistic. In some cases the actual range might be only half that predicted. Part of this
discrepancy is due to the failure of Eq. above to explicitly include the various losses that can
occur throughout the system or the loss in performance usually experienced when electronic
equipment is operated in the field rather than under laboratory-type conditions. Another
important factor that must be considered in the radar equation is the statistical or unpredictable
nature of several of the parameters. The minimum detectable signal S min and the target cross
section σ are both statistical in nature and must be expressed in statistical terms.

Other statistical factors which do not appear explicitly in Eq. but which have an effect on the
radar performance are the meteorological conditions along the propagation path and the
performance of the radar operator, if one is employed. The statistical nature of these several
parameters does not allow the maximum radar range to be described by a single number. Its
specification must include a statement of the probability that the radar will detect a certain type
of target at a particular range.

2.Explain various applications of radar? 6M

Ans: Applications of radar:

General

i. Ground-based radar is applied chiefly to the detection, location and tracking of aircraft of
space targets

ii. Shipborne radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shorelines
and other ships. It is also used to observe aircraft

iii. Airborne radar is used to detect other aircraft, ships and land vehicles. It is also used for
mapping of terrain and avoidance of thunderstorms and terrain.
 iv. Spaceborne radar is used for the remote sensing of terrain and sea, and for
rendezvous/docking.

Major Applications

1. Air Traffic Control

 Used to provide air traffic controllers with position and other information on
aircraft flying within their area of responsibility (airways and in the vicinity of
airports)

 High resolution radar is used at large airports to monitor aircraft and ground
vehicles on the runways, taxiways and ramps.

 GCA (ground controlled approach) or PAR (precision approach radar) provides

an operator with high accuracy aircraft position information in both the vertical
and horizontal. The operator uses this information to guide the aircraft to a
landing in bad weather.

 MLS (microwave landing system) and ATC radar beacon systems are based on
radar technology

2. Air Navigation

 Weather avoidance radar is used on aircraft to detect and display areas of heavy
precipitation and turbulence.

 Terrain avoidance and terrain following radar (primarily military)

 Radio altimeter (FM/CW or pulse)

 Doppler navigator

 Ground mapping radar of moderate resolution sometimes used for navigation

3. Ship Safety

 These are one of the least expensive, most reliable and largest applications of
radar

 Detecting other craft and buoys to avoid collision

 Automatic detection and tracking equipment (also called plot extractors) are
available with these radars for collision avoidance

 Shore based radars of moderate resolution are used from harbour surveillance and
as an aid to navigation

4. Space

 Radars are used for rendezvous and docking and was used for landing on the
moon
  Large ground based radars are used for detection and tracking of satellites

 Satellite-borne radars are used for remote sensing (SAR, synthetic aperture radar)

5. Remote Sensing

 Used for sensing geophysical objects (the environment)

 Radar astronomy - to probe the moon and planets

 Ionospheric sounder (used to determine the best frequency to use for HF

communications)

 Earth resources monitoring radars measure and map sea conditions, water resources,
ice cover, agricultural land use, forest conditions, geological formations,
environmental pollution (Synthetic Aperture Radar, SAR and Side Looking Airborne
Radar SLAR)

6. Law Enforcement

 Automobile speed radars

 Intrusion alarm systems

7. Military

 Surveillance

 Navigation , Fire control and guidance of weapons

3Describe about Radar cross section of Target. 6M

Ans:

Radar Cross Section of Targets:

Cross-section: The fictional area intercepting that amount of power which, when
scattered equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar that is equal to that actually
received.
Where R = range

Er= reflected field strength at radar

Ei = incident field strength at target

For most targets such as aircraft. Shipsand terrain, the σ does not bear a simplerelationship to the
physical area.EM scattered field is the difference between the total field in the presence of an
object and the field that would exist if the object were absent. EM diffracted field: is the total
field in the presence of the object.For radar backscatter, the two fields are the same (since the
transmitted field hasdisappeared by the time the received field appears).The σ can be calculated
using Maxwell’s equations onlyfor simple targets such as the sphere (Fig.).

When (the Rayleigh region), the scattering from a sphere can be used for modelling
-4
raindrops. Since σ varies as λ in the Rayleigh region, rain and clouds are invisible for long
wavelength Radars.The usual radar targets are much larger than raindrops and hence the long λ
operation does not reduce the target σ.

the σ approaches the optical cross section πa .In the Mie (resonance region) σ can
2
When
actually be 5.6 dB greater than the optical value or 5.6dB smaller.For a sphere the σ is not aspect
sensitive as it is for all other objects, and hence can beused fro calibrating a radar system.
Backscatter of a long thin rod (missile) is shown. Where the length is 39λ and the diameter λ/4,
the material is silver.Here θ = 0˚ is the end on view and σ is small since the projected area is
small.
The Cone Sphere

Here the first derivatives of the cone and sphere contours are the same at the point of joining. The
nose-on σ is shown in Fig. 2.12

Note: Fig. 2.12. The σ for θ near 0˚ (-45˚ to +45˚) is quite low. This is because scattering occurs
from discontinuities. Here the discontinuities are small: the tip, the join and the base of the
sphere (which allows a creeping wave to travel around the sphere).
  When the cone is viewed at perpendicular incidence (θ = 90 - α, where α is the cone half
angle) a large specular return is contained.
 From the rear, the σ is approximately that of a sphere.
 The nose on σ for f above the Rayleigh region and for a wide range of α, has a max of
2 2
0.4λ and a min of 0.01λ . This gives a very low backscatter (e.g. at λ = 3 cm, σ = 10-4
2
m ).
Complex Targets.
The σ of complex targets (ships, aircraft, and terrain) is complicated functions of
frequencyand viewing angle. The σ can be computed using GTD (Geometric Theory of
Diffraction), measured experimentally or found using scale models.A complex target can be
considered as being composed of a large number of independent objects which scatter energy in
all directions. The relative phases and amplitudes of the echo signals from the individual
scatterers determine the total σ. If the separation between individual scatterers is large compared
to λ the phases will vary with the viewing angle and cause a scintillating echo.
An example of the variation of σ with aspect angle is shown in Fig. 2.16. The σ can
change by 15dB for an angular change of 0.33˚. Broadside gives the max σ since the projected
area is bigger and is relatively flat (The B-26 fuselage had a rectangular cross-section). This data
was obtained by mounting the actual aircraft on a turntable above ground and observing its σ
with a radar A more economical method is to construct scale models. An example of a model
measurement is given in Fig. 2.17 bythe dashed lines. The solid lines are the theoretical
(computed using GTD) data. The computed data is obtained bybreaking up the target into simple
geometrical shapes. And then computing the contributions of each (accounting for
shadowing).The most realistic method for obtaining σ data is to measure the actual target in
flight. The US Naval Research Lab has such a facility with L, S, C, and X band radars. The radar
track data establishes the aspect angle. Data is usually averaged over a 10˚ x 10˚ aspect angle
interval.
A single value cross section is sometimes given for specific aircraft targets for use in the
range equation. This is sometimes an average value or sometimes a value which is exceeded 99%
of the time.Even though single values are given there can be large variations in actual σ for any
targete.g. the AD 4B, a propeller driven aircraft has a σ of 20 m2 at L band but its σ at VHF is
2
about 100 m This is because at VHF the dimensions of the scattering objects are comparable to
λ and produce a resonance effect.For large ships, an average cross section taken from port,
starboard and quarter aspects yields
Here σ is in m ,f is in MHz and D is ship displacement in kilotons.This equation applies only to
2

grazing angles i.e. as seen from the same elevation.

4.Explain in detail about various system losses. 6M

Ans:System Losses:
Losses in the radar reduce the S/N at the receiver output. Losses which can be calculated
include the antenna beam shape loss, the collapsing loss and the plumbing loss. Losses which
cannot be calculated readily include those due to field degradation, operator fatigue and lack of
-1
operator motivation. Loss has a value greater than unity - Loss = [Gain]

1) Plumbing Loss
 Loss in transmission lines between the transmitter and antenna and between
antenna and receiver.
 Note from the Fig 2.28 that, at low frequencies, the transmission lines introduce
little loss. At high frequencies the attenuation is significant
 Additional loss occurs at connectors (0.5 dB), bends (0.1dB) and at rotary joints
(0.4 dB)

Note: If a line is used for both transmission and reception, its loss is added twice.
  The duplexer typically adds 1.5 dB insertion loss. In general, the greater the isolation
required, the greater the insertion loss.

2) Beam Shape Loss

The train of pulses returned from the target to a scanning radar are modulated in amplitude
by the shape of the antenna beam.A beam shape loss accounts for the fact that the maximum gain
is used in the radar equation rather than a gain which changes from pulse to pulse. (This
approach is approximate since it does not address Pd for each pulse separately).
Let the one way power pattern be approximated by a Gaussian shape

Here θB is the half power beam width

nB is the number of pulses received within θB and if n is the number of pulses integrated, then
the beam shape loss (relative to a radar that integrated n pulses with equal gain) is
Example integrating 11 pulses gives L (beam shape) = 1.66 dB. The beam shape loss above was
for a beam shaped in one plane only (i.e. fan beam orpencil beam where the target passes
through the centre of the beam).If the target passe through any other part of the beam the
maximum signal will not correspond to the signal from the beam centre.When many pulses are
integrated per beamwidth, the scanning loss is taken as 1.6 dB for a fan beam scanning in one
coordinate, and as 3.2 dB when two coordinate scanning is used.When the antenna scans so
rapidly that the gain on transmission is not the same as the gain on reception, an additional
“scanning loss” is added.Additional loss for phased array search using a step scanning pencil
beam since not all regions of space are illuminated by the same value of antenna gain.
3) Limiting Loss
Limiting in radar can lower the P d. This is not a desirable effect and is due to a limited
dynamic range. Limiting can be due to pulse compression processing and intensity modulation of
CRT (such as PPI).Limiting results in a loss of onlya fraction of a dB for large numbers of pulses
integrated providing the limiting ratio (ratio of video limit level to RMS noise level) is greater
than 2.For small SNR in bandpass limiters, the reduction of SNR of a sine wave in narrowband
Gaussian noise is π/4 (approx 1 dB).If the spectrum of the input noise is shaped correctly, this
loss can be made negligible.
4) Collapsing Loss
If the radar integrates additional noise samples along with the wanted signal +noise pulses,
the added noise causes degradation called the collapsing g loss. This occurs on displays which
collapse range information (C scope which displays El vs Az).In some 3D radars (range, Az, El)
that displayoutputs at all Elevations on one PPI (range, Az) display, the collapsing of the 3D
information into 2 D display results in loss.Can also occur when the output of a high resolution
radar is displayed on a device which is of coarser resolution than the radar.Marcum has shown
that for a square law detector, the integration of m noise pulses, along with n signal + noise
pulses with SNR per pulse (S/N)n, is equivalent to the integration of m+n signal-to-noise pulses
each with SNR of

The collapsing lossthen is the ratio of the integration loss Li for m+n pulses to the integration
loss for n pulses
 f 8
Example: 10 signal pulses are integrated with 30 noise pulses Required Pd= 0.9, n = 10
Fig 2.8b. Li (40) = 3.5 dB, Li (10) = 1.7 dB

Therefore Li (m,n) = 1.8 dB

Collapsing loss for a linear detector can be much greater than for a square law detector.

Fig 2.29 shows the comparison of loss for each detector

5) Nonideal Equipment

Transmitter power - the power varies from tube to tube (for same type), and with age for a
specific tube. Power is also not uniform over the operating band. Hence Pt may be other than the
design value. To allow for this, a loss factor of about 2 dB can be used.
 Receiver noise figure: the NF will vary over the band, hence if the best NF is used in
theradar equation, a loss factor must account for its poorer value elsewhere in the band.

Matched filter: if the receiver is not the exact matched filter fro the transmitted
waveform, aloss of SNR will occur (typically 1 dB).

Threshold level: due to the exponential relationship between Tfaand VTa slight change
inVT can cause significant change to Tfa hence, VT is set slightly higher than calculated to
give good Tfa in the event of circuit drifts. This is equivalent to a loss.

6) Operator Loss
A distracted, tired, overloaded, poorly trained operator will perform less efficiently. The
operator efficiency factor (empirical) is where Pd is the single scan probability of
detection.operator loss is not relevant to systems where automatic detection is done

7) Field Degradation
When a radar is operated under field conditions, the performance deteriorates even more
than can be accounted for in the above losses.Factors which cause field degradation are:

 poor training
 weak tubes
 water in the transmission lines
 incorrect mixer crystal current
 deterioration in the receiver NF
 poor TR tube recovery
 loose cable connections

Radars should be designed with BIST (built - in system test) and BITE (built - in test
equipment) to aid in performance monitoring. A preventative maintenance plan should be
used.

BITE parameters to be monitored are

 Transmitted power Pt
 NF of receiver
 Transmitter pulse shape
 Recovery time of TR tube

With no other information available, 3 dB is assumed for field degradation loss

 8) Other Loss Factors

MTI radars introduce additional loss. The MTI discrimination technique results in
complete loss of sensitivity for certain target values (blind speeds).In a radar with
overlapping range gates, the gates may be wider than optimum for practical reasons.The
additional noise introduced bynonoptimum gate width leads to degradation performance.
Straddling loss accounts for loss in SNR for targets not at the centre of a range gate, or at
the centre of a filter in a multiple bank processor

5.Discuss about Limitations of MTI performance. 6M

Ans: Limitations of MTI Performance:
Improvement in signal to clutter is affected by factors other than the Doppler
spectrum. Instabilities in the transmitter and receiver, physical motion of the clutter, finite

time on target and receiver limiting all affect Ic.

1) MTI Improvement Factor I: The signal to clutter ratio at the output of the
MTIsystem divided by the signal to clutter ratio at the input, averaged over all of the target
radial velocities of interest.
2) Subclutter Visibility (SCV): The ratio by which the target echo may be
weakerthan the coincident clutter echo power and still be detected with specified Pd and Pfa.
All target radial velocities are assumed equally likely.A typical value is 30 dB.Two radars
with the same subclutter visibility might not have the same ability to detecttargets in clutter if
the resolution cell of one is greater and accepts more clutter echo power.
3) Clutter Visibility Factor Voc: The signal to clutter ratio after cancellation
(orDoppler processing) that provides the stated Pd and Pfa.
4) Clutter Attenuation C A: the ratio of the clutter power at the canceller inputto the
clutter residue at the output, normalized (divided by) to the attenuation of a single pulse
passing through the unprocessed channel of the canceller.
5)Cancellation Ratio: The ratio of canceller voltage amplification fro fixed
targetechoes received with a fixed antenna, to the gain for a single pulse passing through the
unprocessed channel of the canceller.

When the MTI is limited by noise like system instabilities, Voc should be chosen as theSNR
for range equation calculations. When the MTI is limited by antenna scanning fluctuations,
let Voc = 6dB for a singlepulse.Once again, I is the preferred measure of MTI performance
but does not account forpossible poor performance at certain velocities
6) Interclutter Visibility: The ability of the MTI to detect moving targets inclear
resolution cells between patches of strong clutter. Resolution cells can be range, azimuth or
Doppler.The higher the radar resolution, the better the interclutter visibility. A medium
resolutionradar with 2μs pulse width and 1.5 ˚ beamwidth has sufficient resolution to achieve
a 20 dB advantage over low resolution radars.
7) Equipment Instabilities: The apparent frequency spectrum from
perfectlystationary clutter can be broadened (and hence will degrade the MTI improvement
factor) due to the following:
 Pulse to pulse changes in amplitude

 Pulse to pulse changes in frequency

 Pulse to pulse changes in phase

 Timing jitter on transient pulse

 Variations in time delay through the delay lines

 Changes in pulse width

 Changes in coho or stalo between time of transmit and time of receive

6.Explain in detail about Multiple or Staggered Pulse Repetition Frequencies. 6M

Ans: If a radar is operating at multiples PRFs or its PRF is changed either pulse to pulse or
scan to scan, than the effect of blind speed can be eliminated from the radar. If tworadars
operating at same frequencies but having its different PRF then if one radar isblind to moving
target. If we use single radar but having different PRF than the same affect can be
achieved.When the PRF is changing pulse to pulse than it may be called as staggered
PRF.Staggering of PRF is generally employed in Air Traffic Control Radar such
asSurveillance Radar Element (SRE).
Multiple PRFs reduce the effect of blind speeds and also allow a sharper low
frequency cutoff. The blind speeds of two independent radars will be different if their PRFs
are different. This same result can be achieved with one radar which shares its PRFs between
2 or more values.
PRF can be switched every other scan, every time the antenna is scanned half a beam
width or pulse to pulse (staggered PRF). Fig. 4.16 shows the composite response of MTI with
two separate PRFs with a ratio of 5:4.The first blind speed of the composite is greatly

increased (i.e. at fd= 4/T1 = 5/T2). Butregions of low sensitivity appear..The closer the ratio

T1: T2 approaches unity, the greater the frequenc y of the first blind speed, and the deeper he

first null in the vicinity of fd - 1/T1. The null depth can be reduced and the first blind speed
increased by operating with more than 2 PRFs.Fig 4.17 shows a five pulse stagger (4 periods)
response with periods in the ratio 25:30:27:31.Here the first blind speed is 28.25 times that of
a constant PRF with the same average period.If the periods of the staggered pulses have the
relationships

Where n1, n2,.....nN are integers.

And if vB is the first blind speed of a nonstaggered pulse with period equal to the average
period

Then the first blind speed v1 is

Weighting can also be applied to received pulses of a staggered PRF. Fig. 4.18 dashed
curve shows the response of a 5 pulse canceler with fixed PRF and using weights of 7/8;1;-3
3/4; 1 7/8. The solid curve is for a staggered PRF with the same weights but with 4 interpulse
periods of -15%, -5%, 5%, 15%.The problem occurs in using staggered PRF is that residual
of uncancelledechos of clutters, which are due to second time around echos. So to minimize
the second time around echos affect, if we use unstaggered PRF in the sector where second
time around are expected more.
 Note that the response at the first blind speed is down only 6.6dB. The disadvantage
of staggered PRF is its inability to cancel second time around clutter echoes. Such clutter
does not appear at the same range from pulse to pulse and produces uncancelled residue.

Second time around clutter can be removed by the use of constant PRF providing
there is pulse to pulse coherence (i.e. power amplifier form of MTI). Constant PRF might be
employed only over angular sectors where second time around clutter is expected, or by
changing the PRF each time the antenna scans half a beamwidth, or by changing the PRF
each scan period.

7.Explain the concept of delayline canceller. 6M

Ans:
The simple MTI delay-line canceller The simple MTI delay-line canceller The capability of
this device depends on the quality of the medium used iis the delay line. The Pulse modulator
delay line must introduce a time delay equal to the pulse repetition interval. For typical
ground-based air-surveillance radars this might be several milliseconds. Delay times of this
magnitude cannot be achieved with practical electromagnetic transmission lines. By
converting the electromagnetic signal to an 'acoustic signal it is possible to utilize delay lines
of a reasonable physical length since the velocity of propagation of acoustic waves After the
necessary delay is introduced by the acoustic line, the signal is converted back to an
electromagnetic signal for further processing.

The early acoustic delay lines developed during World War 11 used liquid delay lines filled
with either water or mercury. Liquid delay lines were large and inconvenient to use. They
were replaced in the mid1950s by the solid fused-quartz delay line that used multiple
internal reflections to obtain a compact device. These analog acoustic delay lines were, in
turn supplanted in the early 1970s by storage devices based on digital computer technology.
The use of digital delay lines requires that the output of the MTI receiver phase-detector be
quantized into a sequence of digital words. The compactness and convenience of digital
processing allows the implementation of more complex delay-line cancellers with filter
characteristics not practical with analog methods. One of the advantages of a time-domain
delay-line canceller as compared to the more conventional frequency-domain filter is that a
single network operates at all ranges and does not require a separate filter for each range
resolution cell. Frequency-domain doppler filterbanks are of interest in some forms of MTI
and pulse-doppler radar.
Filter characteristics of the delay-line canceller:The delay-line canceller acts as a filter
which rejects the d-c component of clutter. Because of its periodic nature, the filter also
rejects energy in the vicinity of the pulse repetition frequency and its harmonics.
It is assumed that the gain through the delay-line canceller is unity. Thus the amplitude of the
canceled video output is a function of the Doppler frequency shift and the pulse-repetition
interval, or prf. The magnitude of the relative frequency-response of the delay-line canceler
[ratio of the amplitude of the output from the delay-line canceller, to the amplitude of the
normal radar video.
Blind speeds: The response of the single-delay-line canceller will be zero whenever the
argument Пfd T in the amplitude factor. The blind speeds are one of the limitations of pulse
MTI radar which do not occur with CW radar. They are present in pulse radar because
doppler is measured by discrete samples (pulses) at the prf rather than continuously. If the
first blind speed is to be greater than the maximum radial velocity expected from the target,
the product ,If the first blind speed must be large. Thus the MTI radar must operate at long
wavelengths (low frequencies) or with high pulse repetition frequencies, or both.

8.Draw the block diagram of MTI radar with power oscillator. 6M

Ans:Block diagram of MTI radar with power oscillator

In an oscillator the phase of the RF bears no relationship from pulse to pulse. For this
reason the reference signal cannot be generated by a continuously running oscillator.
However, a coherent reference signal may be readily obtained with the power oscillator by
readjusting the phase of the coho at the beginning of each sweep according to the phase of
the transmitted pulse. The phase of the coho is locked to the phase of the transmitted pulse
each time a pulse is generated. A portion of the transmitted signal is mixed with the stalo output
to produce an IF beat signal whose phase is directly related to the phase of the transmitter. This
IF pulse is applied to the coho and causes the phase of the coho CW oscillation to "lock"
in step with the phase of the IF reference pulse. The phase of the coho is then related to
the phase of the transmitted pulse and may be used as the reference signal for echoes received
from that particular transmitted pulse. Upon the next transmission another IF locking pulse
is generated to relock the phase of the CW coho until the next locking pulse comes
along.

9.With a neat functional diagram explain the working of sequential lobing tracking
Ans:Sequential lobing:- 6M
A simple pencil-beam antenna is not suitable for tracking radars unless means
areprovided for determining the magnitude and direction of the target's angular position with
respect to some reference direction, usually the axis of the antenna.The difference between
the target position and the reference direction is the angularerror.When the angular error is
zero, the target is located along the reference direction.One method of obtaining the direction
and the magnitude of the angular error in onecoordinate is by alternately switching the
antenna beam between two positions iscalled lobe switching, sequential switching, or
sequential lobbing.

Fig:Dual beam polar pattern in sequential lobbing

 Fig:Rectangular representation and error signal

There are total four switching position (up-down, right-left) are needed (two
additional) to obtain angular error in orthogonal coordinate.
Advantage:-
1. Target position accuracy can be better than the size of antenna beam width.
Disadvantages of Sequential Lobing :„
a) Reduced bandwidth because 4 pulses are required to resolve the target in 2D.
b) Fluctuations in the signal level due to variations in the echo strength on a pulse-by-
pulse basis reduce the tracking accuracy Susceptible to modulation by the target,
either natural (propellers, wing beats etc.) or as part of the electronic
countermeasures.
c) The antenna gain in the on boresight direction is less than the peak gain, so the
maximum range is reduced.

10.Draw the block diagram of a phase comparision monopulse tracking radar and explain
it’sworking. 6M

The measurement of angle of arrival by comparison of the phase relationships in the

signals from the separated antennas of a radio interferometer has been widely used by the
radio astronomers for precise measurements of the positions of radio stars. The interferometer
as used by the radio astronomer is a passive instrument, the source of energy being radiated
by the target itself. Tracking radar which operates with phase information is similar to an
active interferometer and might be called an interferometer radar. It has also been called
Simultaneous phase comparison radar, or phase-comparison monopulse.In Fig. two antennas
are shown separated by a distance d. The distance to the target is R and is assumed large
compared with the antenna separation d. The line of sight to the target makes an angle θ to
the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two antennas. The distance from antenna 1
to the target is R1 = R+(dsinθ)/2. The distance from antenna 2 to the target is R 2 = R–
(dsinθ)/2.

The phase difference between the echo signals in the two antennas is
approximately Δφ = 2πd sinθ/λ

For small angles where sin θ = 0, the phase difference is a linear function of the angular error
and may be used to position the antenna via a servo-control loop.

Fig: Wavefront phase relationships in phase- comparison monopulse radar

In the early versions of the phase-comparison monopulse radar, the angular error was
determined by measuring the phase difference between the outputs of receivers connected to
each antenna.The output from one of the antennas was used for transmission and for
providing the range information. With such an arrangement it was difficult to obtain the
desired aperture illuminations and to maintain a stable boresight. A more satisfactory method
of operation is to form the sum and difference patterns in the RF and to process the signals as
in conventional amplitude-comparison monopulse radar.

11.Discuss about various Radar displays. 6M

Ans:Radar Displays:-A radar display is an electronic instrument for visual representation of

radar data. Radar displays can be classified from the standpoint of their functions, the
physical principles of their implementation, type of information displayed, and so forth. From
the viewpoint of function, they can be detection displays, measurement displays, or special
displays. From the
view point of number of displayed coordinates, they can be one dimensional (1D), two
dimensional (2D), or three dimensional (3D).

A-Scope:- The original radar display, the A-scope or A-display, shows only the range, not
the direction, to targets. Some people referred to these displays also as R-scope for range
scope.

B-scope:- A B-scope or b-scan provides a 2-D "top down" representation of space, with the

vertical axis typically representing range and the horizontal axis azimuth (angle).

C-scope: A C-scope displays a "bullseye" view of azimuth vs. elevation. The "blip" was
displayed indicating the direction of the target off the centreline axis of the radar, or more
commonly, the aircraft or gun it was attached to. They were also known as "moving spot
indicators", the moving spot being the target blip. Range is typically displayed separately in
these cases, often as a number at the side of the display.

PPI:- The PPI display provides a 2-D "all round" display of the airspace around a radar site.
The distance out from the center of the display indicates range, and the angle around the
display is the azimuth to the target. The current position of the radar antenna is typically
indicated by a line extending from the center to the outside of the display, which rotates along
with the antenna in realtime..

Beta scan scope: The specialist Beta Scan Scope was used for precision approach
radar systems. It displays two lines on the same display, the upper one (typically) displaying
the vertical approach (the glideslope), and the lower one the horizontal approach.

12.Explain in detail about Branch Type Duplexer. 6M

The duplexer is a device which isolates transmitter while receiving and isolates
receiver while transmitting. It functions as microwave switch between antenna and
transmitter/receiver.The functions of duplexer are as follows. 
1) The single antenna can be shared between transmitter and receiver due to its isolation
property.
2) It protects receiver from high power transmission of the transmitter part due to isolation. 
3) It protects receiver from high power transmissions from nearby radars or wireless
transmitters.
Following are the common types of duplexers used are Branch duplexer, Balanced duplexer
Circulator duplexer
The figure depicts block diagram of Branch duplexer. It consists of TR (Transmit-Receive)
switch ad ATR (Antitransmit-receive) switch. These are gas discharge tubes. 
 When transmitter is in ON state, TR and ATR ionize and as a result firing takes place. TR
switch is in short circuit at receiver end and hence transmitter power doe not reach receiver. It
acts as open circuit at transmission line and hence it does not reduce or attenuate transmit
power. ATR placed at λ/4 distance from transmission line functions as short circuit during
firing. It functions as open circuit on transmission line and as a result it does not reduce
transmitpower. When transmitter is in OFF state, TR and ATR tubes do not fire. ATR
functions as short circuit across transmission line.
Moreover it acts as short circuit at λ/4 from receiver. Hence transmitter is
disconnected from transmission line. As a result received echo signals will reach the
receiver. 
 Advantages:Lowercost
Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth, Limited power handling capability

UNIT-IV
13.Explain about synthetic aperture radar. 6M
Ans: A synthetic aperture radar (SAR) achieves high resolution in cross range dimension
bytaking advantages of the motion of the vehicle carrying the radar synthesized the effectof
the large antenna aperture.Synthetic aperture radar is a form of radar in which sophisticated
post-processing ofradar data is used to produce a very narrow effective beam. It can only be
used bymoving instruments over relatively immobile target, but it has seen wide application
inremote sensing and mapping.The imaging of the earth surface by SAR to provide a map
like display can be appliedto military reconnaissance, measurement of sea state and ocean
wave condition,geological and mineral explorations.
Basic operation: In a typical SAR application, a single radar antenna will be attached to the
side of anaircraft. A single pulse form the antenna will be rather broad because diffraction
requirea large antenna to produce a narrow beam.The pulse will also be broad in the vertical
direction; often it will illuminate the terrainfrom directly beneath the aircraft out if the
horizon.However if the terrain is approximately flat the time at which echoes return allows
pointat different distance from the flight track to be distinguished.Distinguishing point along
track of the aircraft is difficult with a small antenna. However if the amplitude and phase of
the signal returning from a given piece of ground are recorded and if the aircraft emits a
series of observation can be combined just as if they had all been made simultaneously from a
very large antenna: this process creates synthetic aperture much larger than the length of the
antenna. Combining the series observation is done using FFT. The result is map of radar
reflectivity on the ground. The phase information is in the simplest application,discarded. The
amplitude information contains information about ground cover. A pulse generation unit
createspulses with a bandwidth according to the aspired range resolution. They will
beamplified by the sender and are transferred to the antenna via a circulator. The receiver gets
the antenna output signal (echoes of the scene) amplifies them to anappropriate level and
applies a band pass filter. After the demodulation and A/Dconversion of the signals the SAR
processor starts to calculate the SAR image.Additional motion information will be provided
by a motion measurement system. Aradar control unit arranges the operation sequence
particularly the time schedule.

14.Write a short note on radar jamming. 6M

Radar jamming is the intentional radiation or reradiation of radio frequency
(RF)signals to interfere with the operation of a radar by saturating its receiver withfalse
targets or false target information. Radar jamming is one principalcomponent of electronic
combat (EC). Specifically, it is the electronic attack (EA)component of electronic warfare
(EW). Radar jamming is designed to counter theradar systems that play a vital role in support
of an enemy integrated air defensesystem (lADS). The primary purpose of radar jamming is
to create confusion anddeny critical information to negate the effectiveness of enemy radar
systems.
Radar jamming types:
There are two types of radar jamming: noise and deception.
a. Noise jamming is produced by modulating a RF carrier wave with noise, or random
amplitude changes, and transmitting that wave at the victim's radar frequency. It relies
on high power levels to saturate the radar receiver and deny range and, occasionally,
azimuth and elevation information to the victim radar. Noise jamming takes
 advantage of the extreme sensitivity of the radar receiver and the transmission pattern
of the radar antenna to deny critical information to the victim radar.
b. Deception jamming uses complex receiving and transmitting circuits to process and
retransmit jamming pulses that appear as a real target to the victim radar. A deception
jammer receives the signal from the victim radar and alters the signal to provide false
range, azimuth, or velocity information. The altered signal is then retransmitted
(Figure 9-2). The victim radar processes this signal, which disrupts the victim radar
and confuses the radar operator. To be effective,deception jamming must match not
only the victim radar's operating frequency,but all the other operating characteristics,
including pulse repetition frequency (PRF), pulse repetition interval (PRI), pulse
width, and scan rate.
Both noise and deception jamming effectiveness are heavily dependent on another
component of EW, specifically, electronic warfare support (ES). ES assets, either airborne or
ground-based, provide the threat system specific radar parametric data and update this
critical information based on observed threat system operations. This data provides the
foundation for developing noise and deception jamming techniques. Intelligence and
engineering assessment of this data are used to identify specific threat system weaknesses
that can be exploitedwith the optimum noise, deception, or combination of jamming
techniques. This information is then programmed into jamming systems to counter specific
threats.Noise Jamming The objective of noise jamming is to inject an interference signal into
the enemy's electronic system such that the actual signal is completely submerged by
interference. This type of jamming is also called 'denial jamming' or 'obscuration jamming'.
The primary advantage of noise jamming is that only minimal details about the enemy
equipment need be known. Within the general class of noise jamming, there are three
different techniques for generating noise-like If interference.
Spot jamming: In this type of jamming, also called 'point jamming' or 'narrow-band
jamming', all the power output of the jammer is concentrated in a very narrow bandwidth,
ideally identical to that of the radar. Spot jamming is usually directed against a specific radar
and requires a panoramic receiver to match the jamming signal to the radar signal.

Barrage jamming: In this type of jamming, all the power output of the jammer is spread over
a bandwidth much wider than that of the radar signal. In other words, it involves the massive
and simultaneous jamming of the whole of the frequency band.
Sweep jamming:This is also similar to barrage jamming. In this case,.the power output of the
jammer (i.e., jammer frequency) is swept back and forth over a very wide bandwidth,
sometimes as much as an octave (a 2: 1 band). It is generally true that the bandwidth of
sweep jamming is wider than that of the barrage jamming, but the relative bandwidth is often
determined by the hardware used. The actual difference between barrage and sweep jamming
lies in the modulation techniques and size of the' frequency band covered. Barrage jamming
often uses an amplitude-modulated signal covering a 10 percent frequency band (i.e.,
bandwidth equal to 10 percent of the central frequency). Sweep jamming often uses a
frequency modulated signal and the frequency is swept back and forth over a wide frequency
bandwidth. Both barrage and sweep jamming are used when the exact frequency of the
enemy system is not known. One major disadvantage of this form of jamming is that it
requires much more output power than spot jamming.

15.Electronic Counter Measures:-

Electronic countermeasure (ECM) is an electrical or electronic device designed to trick or

deceive radar, sonar or other detection systems, like infrared (IR) or lasers. It may be used
both offensively and defensively to deny targeting information to an enemy.The system may
make many separate targets appear to the enemy, or make the real target appear to disappear
or move about randomly. It is used effectively to protect aircraft from guided missiles.
Most air forces use ECM to protect their aircraft from attack. It has also been deployed by
military ships and recently on some advanced tanks to fool laser/IR guided missiles. It is
frequently coupled with stealth advances so that the ECM systems have an easier job.
Offensive ECM often takes the form of jamming. Defensive ECM includes using blip
enhancement and jamming of missile terminal homers.ECM is the active part of EW and is
intended to disrupt the surveillance systems of the enemy, whether by radar or radio
communications, and also to counter any of his weapons which use electromagnetic, infrared
or laser systems for guidance or aiming. There are two main methods of achieving this: by
jamming, or by the use of decoys, both of which are effective when used properly. Many
modern ECM equipments, particularly in the naval scenario, employ both methods in an
integrated system.

Noise jamming is the use of transmissions to disrupt the enemy's communications channels or
to saturate his radar to obscure its target. Although this denies the enemy his information
channels it also means that the jamming source cannot read the signals for intelligence
purposes. Apart from this, modern frequency-agile communication systems are no longer
easy to jam effectively. Simple noise jamming is still in widespread use in the land warfare
scenario, one important application being in remotely operated expendable jammers. These
can be hand-emplaced, artillery-delivered, dropped from aircraft or used in unmanned aerial
vehicles, and serve as short term jammers for a particular operation. The second method of
ECM is the use of decoys, either chaff in the case of electromagnetic threats or flares to
combat infrared devices. The use of chaff goes back over 50 years to the Second World War,
and the material itself has changed very little. What has changed has been the method of
dispersal and this varies according to the type of platform.

For infrared countermeasures flare cartridges are ejected from the dispensers and most
dispensers have a dual role of carrying both chaff and flares make many separate targets
appear to the enemy, or make the real target appear to disappear or move about randomly. It
is used effectively to protect aircraft from guided missiles. Most air forces use ECM to
protect their aircraft from attack. It has also been deployed by military ships and recently on
some advanced tanks to fool laser/IRguidedmissiles. It is frequently coupled with stealth
advances so that the ECM systems have an easier job. Offensive ECM often takes the form of
jamming. Defensive ECM includes using enhancement and jamming of missile terminal
homers.ECM is the active part of EW and is intended to disrupt the surveillance systems of
the enemy, whether by radar or radio communications, and also to counter any of his
weapons which use electromagnetic, infrared or laser systems for guidance or aiming. There
are two main methods of achieving this by jamming, or by the use of decoys, both of which
are effective when used properly. Many modern ECM equipments, particularly in the naval
scenario employ both methods in an integrated system. Noise jamming is the use of
transmissions to disrupt the enemy’s communications channels or to saturate his radar to
obscure its target. Although this denies the enemy his information channels it also means that
the jamming source cannot read the signals for intelligence purposes. Apart from this,
modern frequency agile communication systems are no longer easy to jam effectively. Simple
noise jamming is still in widespread use in the land warfare scenario, one important
application being in remotely operated expendable jammers.

16. ECCMtechniques:

(1)ECCM are taken to protect against enemy attempts to detect, deceive,or destroy friendly
communications. The firstline of defense against REC is a well-trained and aler toperator,
because as mentioned earlier, many COMSEC techniques are equally ECCM techniques. To
combat enemy REC efforts, operators must use ECCM techniques identified in OPSEC
surveys and unit SOPs, Unit SOPs must include actions to be taken against jamming and
deception. Specific techniques are described in TACSATTMs. Prearranged plans and
frequent training exercises are mandatory. Operators must follow SOPs to maintain or restore
communications. Anti-jamming equipment may be available to some terminals. ECCM plans
must consider possible up-link and down-link jamming. The jamming noise must be defeated
by increases in transmit power or changes in link capacity.
(3)There are other ECCM actions that will lessen our vulnerability to an enemy REC effort.

(a) Prepare backup system-order wire, messenger ,and HF radio.

(b) Prepare to operate with the minimum amount of communications.
(c) Move CPs frequently.
(d) Use state-of-the-art equipment and apply authorized modifications to equipment.
(e) Report all known or suspected REC activities.
(f) Plan and train to counte ran REC threat.
(g) Disperse communications equipment over a wide geographical area.

17. Explain the working of Air surveillance radar.(6M)

Ans: The first successful application of radar was for the detection and tracking of aircraft.
Airsurveillance continues to be one of the more important radar applications for both
civilian(airtraffic control) and military purposes. The military employ such radars for general
surveillance of the airspace, for providing acquisition information to anti-air-warfare systems,
and for directing aircraft to an interception. There are two different types of civilian air-
surveillance radars used by the Federal Aviation Administration for the control of air traffic
in States. One is the S-band 60nmi airport Surveillance t-radar (ASH), information on aircraft
in the vicinity of airports. The other is the L-hand, air surveillance radar(ARSR),ATC
technologies are evolving to include other components than primary and secondary
surveillance radars, but I believe these two pieces of equipment are still the back bone of
ATC. Primary radar(PSR,2.8GHz) works usually on higher frequencies than secondary
radar(SSR,1.030GHz).Air Surveillance Radars are designed for early warning, land and
maritime surveillance, whether for fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, or remotely piloted
vehicles(RPV's).Over the years, radar has been used for many and varied military and non-
military purposes.

Most Federal Government radars are functionally classified as either surveillance or tracking
radars, or some combination of the two. Surveillance radar is designed to continuously search
for and detect new targets. The basic surveillance radar function has a2-dimensional (2D) plot
showing the target object position in degrees from North (azimuth) and range(distance)from
the radar. Radars that can determine azimuth, distance, and elevation are called 3-
dimensional (3-D) radars. Tracking radar calculates a path for individual targets by using
radar return echoes from ones can to the next, and is usually 3-D radars. Radars that perform
both surveillance and tracking are loosely called multi-mode radars. NEC's Airport
Surveillance Radar (ASR) is a high performance S-Band radar system designed to provide air
traffic controllers with reliable and clear picture of air traffic within its coverage area. Latest
solid state and digital processing technologies are used to realize improved ground and
weather clutter suppression and interference-free output. Based on its more than50years of
unique experiences of serving worldwide customers, NEC offers integrated advanced
technologies listed below to meet each customer's requirements. The air traffic control
radar beacon system (ATCRBS)is a system used in air traffic control (ATC)to enhance
surveillance radar monitoring and separation of air traffic. ATCRBS assists ATC surveillance
radars by acquiring information about the aircraft being monitored, and providing this
information to the radar controllers. The controllers can use the information to identify radar
returns from aircraft (known as targets) and to distinguish those returns from ground clutter.

The system consists of transponders, installed in aircraft, and secondary surveillance radars
(SSRs),installed at air traffic control facilities. The SSR is sometimes co-located with the
primary surveillance radar, or PSR. These two radar systems work in conjunction to
produce a synchronized surveillance picture. The SSR transmits interrogations and listens for
any replies. Transponders that receive an interrogation decode it, decide whether to reply, and
then respond with the requested information when appropriate. Note that in common informal
usage, the term "SSR" is sometimes used to refer to the entire ATCRBS system, how ever
this term(as found in technical publications)properly refers only to the ground radar
itself.ATC ground station consists of two radar systems and their associated support
components. The most prominent component is the PSR. It is also referred to as skinpaint
radar because it shows not synthetic or alpha-numeric target symbols, but bright (or colored)
blips or areas on the radar screen produced by the RF energy reflections from the target's
"skin."This is a non-cooperative process; no additional avionic devices are needed. The radar
detects and displays reflective objects within the radar's operating range. Weather radar data
is displayed in skin paint mode. The primary surveillance radar is subject to the radar
equation that says signal strength drops off as the fourth power of distance to the target.
Objects detected using the PSR are known as primary targets. The second system is the
secondary surveillance radar, or SSR, which depends on a cooperating transponder
installed on the aircraft being tracked. The transponder emits a signal when it is interrogated
by the secondary radar. In a transponder based system signals drop off as the inverse square
of the distance to the target, instead of the fourth power in primary radars. As a result,
effective range is greatly increased for a given power level. The transponder can also send
encoded information about the aircraft, such as identity and altitude.

The SSR is equipped with a main antenna, and an omni directional "Omni" antenna at many
older sites. Newer antennas (as in the adjacent picture), are grouped as a left and right
antenna, and each side connects to a hybrid device which combines the signals in to sum and
difference channels. Still other sites have both the sum and difference antenna, and an Omni
antenna. Surveillance aircraft, e.g. AWACS, have only the sum and difference antennas, but
can also be space stabilized by phase shifting the beam down or up when pitched or rolled.
The SSR antenna is typically fitted to the PSR antenna, so they point in the same direction as
the antennas rotate. The omni directional antenna is mounted near and high, usually on top of
the radome if equipped. Mode-S interrogators require the sum and difference channels to
provide the monopulse capability to measure the off-bore sight angle of the transponder
reply.

The SSR repetitively transmits interrogations as the rotating radar antenna scans the sky. The
interrogation specifies what type of information a replying transponder should send by using
a system of modes. There have been a number of modes used historically, but four are in
common use today: mode1, mode2, mode3/A, and mode C. Mode1 is used to sort military
targets during phases of a mission. Mode2 is used to identify military aircraft missions.
Mode3/A is used to identify each aircraft in the radar's coverage area. Mode C is used to
request/report an aircraft's altitude.
Two other modes, mode4 and mode S, are not considered part of the ATCRB Ssystem, but
they use the same transmit and receive hardware. Mode4 isused by military aircraft for the
Identification Friend or Foe (IFF)system. Mode S is a discrete elective interrogation, rather
than a general broadcast, that facilitates TCAS for civilian aircraft. Mode S transponders
ignore interrogations not addressed with their unique identity code, reducing channel
congestion. At a typical SSR radar installation, ATCRBS, IFF,and modes interrogations will
all be transmitted in an interlaced fashion. Some military facilities and/or aircraft will also
utilize Mode S.

Returns from both radars at the ground station are transmitted to the ATC facility using a
microwave link, a coaxial link, or(with newer radars)a digitizer and a modem. Once received
at the ATC facility, a computer system known as a radar data processor associates the reply
information with the proper primary target and displays it next to the target on the radar
scope.

/*