WIND ENERGY

COURSE CODE: 806

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WIND ENERGY

Fig.1 wind Energy turbine

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Wind machines were used long time ago, the very first electricity generating windmill operated in the
UK was a battery charging machine installed in 1887 by James Blyth in Scotland. The first utility grid-
connected wind turbine operated in the UK was built by the John Brown Company in 1954 in the Orkney
Islands. Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Virtually all
modern wind turbines convert wind energy to both mechanical power and electricity and it is the
world’s fastest growing energy source. US Dept of energy (2009)

The modern wind turbine is a system that comprises three integral components with distinct disciplines
of engineering science. The rotor component includes the blades for converting wind energy to an
intermediate low speed rotational energy. The generator component includes the electrical generator,
the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox component for converting the low speed rotational

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energy to electricity. The structural support component includes the tower for optimally situating the
rotor component to the wind energy source (Fingersh et al, 2006).

Fig. 2 Functional part of wind Turbine

1.1 Wind Turbine Glossary

Anemometer: measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades
to lift and rotate.

Brake: A disc brake which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in
emergencies.

Controller: the controller starts up the machine at about 65 mph. Turbines cannot operate at wind
speeds above 65mph because their generator could overheat.

Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds
from about 30 to 60 rpm to about 1200 to 1500 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generator to
produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and Engineers are
exploring “direct-drive” generator that operate at lower rotational speeds and don’t need a gear box.

High speed shaft: Drives the generator

Low speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minutes.

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Nacelle: the rotor attaches to the nacelle, which sits atop the tower and includes the gear box, low-and
high-speed shafts, generator, controller and brake. A cover protects the components inside the nacelle.
Some nacelles are large enough for a technician to stand inside while working.

Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in wind that are too
high or too low to produce electricity.

Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor

Tower: Tower are made from tubular steel or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height,
taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.

Wind direction: This is an “upwind” turbine, so called because it operates facing into the wind. Other
turbines are designed to turn “downwind”, facing away with the wind.

Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the Yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to wind

Yaw drive: Upwind turbine face into the wind: yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind
as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don’t require a yaw drive, the wind blow the rotor
downwind.

Yaw motor: power the yaw motor

Power system interconnection: Interface generator with load or power grid

Cooling system: Cools the generator and gearbox lubrication system.

SCADA: Monitor performance, control set-points, human interface

Table 2: Wind turbine classification. (Global Energy Concepts. 2009)

Scale Average Output Range Uses

Utility 900kw – 2MW  Generate bulk energy for sale in power
market
 Commonly used in “windfarms”
Industrial 50kw – 250 kw  Remote grid production
 Reduce consumption of higher cost og grid
power
 May be sold if permitted by state regulations
Residential 400W to 50 kw  Remote power
 Battery charging
 Net metering type generation

1.2 How Does Wind Energy Work?

Wind energy is the energy obtained from the force of the wind. Windmills convert the kinetic energy of
the air currents into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks such as
grinding grain or pumping water.

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Wind turbines transform the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy, and then a generator
converts this mechanical energy into electricity. Stronger winds provide most energy conversion as they
rotate the blades faster.

A wind turbine works as follows:

When the wind travels over the blades, it creates LIFT (like an aircraft wing), causing the blades to turn.

The turbine blades are attached to the rotor, and as the turbine blades rotate, the rotor rotates as well.

The rotor is connected to a low-speed shaft inside the nacelle. This shaft revolves at a low speed, around
15–20 revolutions per minute (RPM), matching the speed of the rotor. This low speed is insufficient for
power generation.

A constant speed gearbox is used to increase the speed of the turbine rotor to a speed that can be used
by the generator. Because the generator must rotate at a speed that matches the frequency of the
electric network (50 or 60 Hz in most countries), it must be turned at 1500 RPM for 50 Hz and 1800 RPM
for 60 Hz. A modern wind turbine may have a gear ratio of 100:1 or more. So, every time the blades
make one revolution, the generator shaft spins 100 times!

The generator's high-speed rotation produces an electric potential difference, commonly known as
voltage (electricity). Electricity from the generator goes to a transformer which converts it to the right
voltage for the electricity grid. The electricity is then transmitted via the electricity network.

The gearbox, generator and control system are contained within a housing unit called a nacelle located
at the top of the tower. The nacelle is automatically aligned to the direction of wind via a yaw
mechanism to take maximum advantage of the wind, regardless of which direction it is blowing.

1.3 Wind Energy application

Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce electricity. The kinetic energy of the wind
is converted to electrical energy. When solar radiation enters the earth’s atmosphere, different regions
of the atmosphere are heated to different degrees because of earth curvature. This heating is higher at
the equator and lowest at the poles. Since air tends to flow from warmer to cooler regions, this causes
what we call winds, and it is these airflows that are harnessed in windmills and wind turbines to produce
power.

1. MECHANICAL APPLICATION.
Wind power is not a new development as this power, in the form of traditional windmills -for
grinding corn and water pump.

2. ELECTRICITY GENERATION.

Wind turbine vary in size and type. They are commercially available for commercial generation.
Size of wind turbines (400 watts – 5MW)

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 • Utility interconnected wind turbines generate power which is synchronous with the grid and are
used to reduce utility bills by displacing the utility power used in the household and by selling
the excess power back to the electric company.
• Wind turbines for remote homes (off the grid) generate DC current for battery charging.
• Wind turbines for remote water pumping generate 3 phase AC current suitable for driving an
electrical submersible pump directly. Wind turbines suitable for residential or village scale wind
power range from 500 Watts to 50 kilowatts.

The basic wind energy conversion device is the wind turbine. Although various designs and
configurations exist, these turbines are generally grouped into two types:

2.0 TYPES OF TURBINES

Wind turbines are classified by orientation of its axis and power output. The axis can be horizontally or
vertically oriented, which have various effects on designs of overall structure. The power output of
turbine can be selected based on the energy needs of the site and affected the overall size of the
turbine.

1. Vertical-axis wind turbines, in which the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the ground (and
roughly perpendicular to the wind stream).

2. Horizontal-axis turbines, in which the axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to the ground (and
roughly parallel to the wind stream).

Fig.1 Wind turbine c

Figure 1 illustrates the two types of turbines and typical subsystems for an electricity generation
application. The subsystems include a blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational
shaft energy; a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator, a tower that supports the rotor
and drive train, and other equipment, including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment,
and interconnection equipment.

Horizontal Axis single blade Wind mills If extremely long blades are mounted on rigid hub. Large blade
root bending moments can occur due to tower shadow, gravity and sudden shifts in wind directions on a
200ft long blade. Fatigue load may be enough to cause blade root failure. To reduce rotor cost, use of
single long blade centrifugally balanced by a low cost counter Weight as shown in figure. The relatively
simple rotor hub consists of a Universal Joint between the rotor shaft and blade allowing for blade. This
type of hub design contains fewer parts and costs less.

Horizontal axis – two bladed wind mills in this arrangement rotor drives generator through a step-up
gear box. The components are mounted on a bed plate which is mounted on a pinttle at the Top of the
tower. The two-blade rotor is usually designed to be oriented downwind of the tower. The arrangement
of all the Components used in horizontal axis wind mill is shown in Fig.3.

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Fig.3 Horizontal axis two blade wind mill

When the machine is operating its rotor blades are continuously flexed by unsteady aerodynamic,
gravitational and inertial loads. If the blades are metal, flexing reduces their fatigue life. The tower is
also subjected to unsteady load and dynamic interactions between the components of the machine-
tower system can cause serious damage. Horizontal Axis – Multi bladed Wind Mills This type of wheel
have narrow rims and Wire spokes. The wire spokes support lightweight aluminum blades. The rotors of
this design have high strength to weight ratios and have been known to survive hours of free wheeling
operation in 100kmph winds. They have good power Co-efficient, high starting torque added advantage
of simplicity and low cost.

Vertical Wind Mills Wind turbines mounted with the axis of rotation in a vertical Position have
advantage that they are omni-directional that is, they need not to be turned to Force the wind. The
Vertical mounted Wind Machines eliminates the need for some of the complex mechanical devices and
control systems necessary for horizontal mounted wind Machines. Two types of vertical axis Wind
Machines have received attention. The Darrievs rotor consists of two or three convex metal blades with

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an air foil cross section, mounted on a Central shaft which is supported by bearings at the top and
bottom. The rotor assembly is held in position by guy wires running from the top of the rotor to the
ground.

Fig.4 Vertical wind mill (Darrievs rotar)

The savonius rotor consists of a long solid’s- shaped surface mounted to turn at the center of ‘s’ the
savonius rotor is self-starting and has an efficiency of about 31% while the Darrievs rotor has a slightly
higher efficiency of 35% but is not self-starting

2.2 Wind Potential

In order for a wind energy system to be feasible there must be an adequate wind supply. A wind energy
system usually requires an average annual wind speed of at least 15 km/h. The following table
represents a guideline of different wind speeds and their potential in producing electricity.

A wind generator will produce lesser power in summer than in winter at the same wind speed as air has
lower density in summer than in winter.

Similarly, a wind generator will produce lesser power in higher altitudes - as air pressure as well as
density is lower -than at lower altitudes.

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The wind speed is the most important factor influencing the amount of energy a wind turbine can
produce. Increasing wind velocity increases the amount of air passing the rotor, which increases the
output of the wind system.

In order for a wind system to be effective, a relatively consistent wind flow is required. Obstructions
such as trees or hills can interfere with the wind supply to the rotors. To avoid this, rotors are placed on
top of towers to take advantage of the strong winds available high above the ground. The towers are
generally placed 100 meters away from the nearest obstacle. The middle of the rotor is placed 10
meters above any obstacle that is within 100 meters.

Advantages of Wind Energy

• The wind energy is free, inexhaustible and does not need transportation.
• Wind mills will be highly desirable and economical to the rural areas which are far from existing
grids.
• Wind power can be used in combination with hydroelectric plants. Such that the water level in
the reservoir can be maintained for longer periods.
• It is pollution-free, intimately sustainable form of energy.
• It does not require fuel.
• It does not create greenhouse gasses.
• It does not produce toxic or radioactive waste.

Disadvantage of Wind Energy

• Wind power is not consistent and steady, which makes the complications in designing the whole
plant.
• The wind is a very hazard one. Special and costly designs and controls are always required.
• The cost factor, which has restricted the development of wind power in large scale for feeding
to the existing grid.
• It has low power coefficient.
• Careful survey is necessary for plant location.

Fig. 4 wind turbine foundation

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4.0 DESIGN AND ENERGY ESTIMATES FOR WIND FARMS.

4.1 Energy Output of Wind Farms.

The amount of power a single wind turbine can generate depends on the design and rating of the
turbine and generator combination, the ability of the control system to extract the maximum energy
from the wind under varying conditions, and the availability of wind of the proper velocity and sufficient
energy to allow generation to occur. Typically a turbine/generator combination has a rated output
which is the maximum output of the machine.

This maximum output will occur at some rated (or minimum) wind velocity, at a standard air density,
and will occur for all velocities above the rated wind velocity up to the cut-out velocity. Each turbine is
only designed to operate within a range of wind velocities: “cut-in” velocity is the lowest wind velocity
and the “cut-out” velocity is the maximum velocity at which the generator will deliver power. Outside
this range the turbine will not be operational.

The energy that is extracted from the wind is kinetic energy (KE). The amount of energy available in any
moving mass at constant velocity (air in this case) can be found using Equation (I).

1 2
KE= m v (1)
2

Where: m = air mass (kg)

ν = wind velocity (m/s)

KE = kinetic energy (Joules)

If a cross sectional area “A” is chosen and assuming the constant velocity, then power contained in a
moving column of air can be found by taking the derivative of energy and is shown below.

dE 1 dm 2
Power = = v
dt 2 dt
dm kg m kg
= density x velocity x area = ρ x v x A x m2 ¿
dt 2m 3 s s

Resulting in Equation (2).

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Power = P = ρ x ν × A ν2 = ρav3 (2)
2
Where:

P = power in (W)

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ρ = air density = 1.225kg/m2 at 15°C and 1 atmosphere.

ν = wind velocity in m/s (1m/s = 2.237mi/hr)

A= Area through which the wind flows in (m 2).

In a typical horizontal axis wind turbine, the area “A” is the area swept by the blades. This can be found
from the blade diameter using Equation (3) where D is the blade diameter in meters and A is the swept
area in m2.

π
A= × D2 (3)
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Another commonly used quantity is called the power density. This is the amount of power per unit area
available from the wind, and is routinely utilized in the designing the wind sites that are normally given
in (W/m2) at some reference blade height, altitude, and temperature. It is defined by:

P 1 3
PowerDensity= = ρ (4)
A 2

Wind velocity over a certain period of time is usually measured at a prospective wind farm site at a
certain height above ground, typically 10m or 50m, and then corrected for the actual tower height of
the turbines that will be installed. The wind velocity increases as the distance above ground increases.
The semi-empirical Equation (5) is most commonly used to correct wind velocity for height above
ground [2].

V H α
=( ) (5)
Vo Ho
Where:

ν = wind velocity at height H

ν0 = wind velocity at the reference height H 0
α = ground roughness (empirical) coefficient:
= 0.10 for smooth ground or water
0.15 tall grass on level ground
0.20 high crops or hedges 0.25 wooded country side
0.30 small town with trees and shrubs
0.40 large city with tall buildings.
To determine the power density and the power output, the air density (or mass) must also be known.
Air density will vary with both altitude and temperature. At sea level at 60°F air density is 1.225kg/m2.
At higher altitudes, air density can be considerably less significantly reducing the power available in the

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wind. Since temperature decreases at a standard rate with altitude, the following equation with one
variable a single equation is used to correct the air density for altitude.

0.297 Hm )
Ρ = ρo e -( (6)
3,048
Where:

ρ = air density at any elevation

ρ0 = air density at sea level
Hm = site elevation in (m)
Wind turbine blade efficiency (C p) is maximum for any wind velocity (ν) at only one blade speed (RPM).
So, to maintain maximum blade efficiency the generator (and rotor) speed (RPM) must vary as the wind
speed varies. Modern variable speed turbines coupled to doubly-fed-induction- generators (DFIG)
endeavor to operate the blade RPM at its optimal value for every wind velocity. The usual way to show
this concept is to present rotor efficiency as a function of “Tip Speed Ratio (TSR).” TSR is the ratio of the
tip of the blade speed over the wind velocity and is defined in Equation (7).

Rotor Tip Speed RPM x π x D

Tip Speed Ratio (TPR) = = (7)
Wind speed 60 v
Where:

D = Rotor diameter in (m)

RPM = Rotor speed in revolutions per minute
ν = wind velocity in (m/s)
If the overall plant control system varies the turbine speed (RPM) as the wind speed varies so that the
TSR remains at its ideal value (or close to it), then the turbine efficiency will be at its maximum possible
level (Gilbert M. 2006). It can be shown that the maximum theoretical limit of turbine efficiency is
59.3% (known as the “Betz” limit), and modern turbines can achieve approximately 80% of this value
under ideal wind conditions.

4.2 Selection of Wind Site, Data Collection and Measurement

Wind resource maps are available from various sources which classify wind sites according to the
expected wind power density (W/m2). These maps are useful to make simple and preliminary estimates
for the amount of energy a wind farm can deliver at a certain site. Sites are classified at a certain
altitude and at a certain height above ground. To use the data they contain data to estimate energy
output at a site. However, the values given on the map must be corrected for altitude and height above
the ground.

Additionally, it is extremely important and must be understood that these maps usually assume the
wind velocity takes on a Weibull type probability distribution of a special kind know as a Rayleigh
distribution. Making this assumption allows these maps to measure only mean annual wind velocity at a
site and then calculate power density from this measurement and the assumed probability distribution.

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Even though the Rayleigh distribution is often assumed, the probability density function describing the
annual wind velocity at a site may vary somewhat from the Rayleigh distribution, so using the values
shown on wind maps may result in some error. Wind site classification values are shown in Table 1.

Table 3: Site Classifications for Wind Sites.

Wind Ave. Annual Wind Velocity m/s Average annual

power at 10m WindPower Density
Class (W/m2) at 10m
1 0-4.4 0-100
2 4.4-5.1 100-150
3 5.1-5,6 150-200
4 5.6-6.0 200-250
5 6.0-6.4 250-300
6 6.4-7.0 300-400
7 7.0-9.5 400-1000

The values shown in Table 1 are annual average values. If a wind power density map shows a site to be
Class 5, it can be determined quickly and approximately how much energy a particular wind turbine may
deliver at this site. As an example, assuming a power density of 250W/m 2 is available on average from a
wind, this can be multiplied by the number of hours per year (8,760hrs./yr.) to get the energy in Watt-
hours that are available at this site. This is shown below:

250 x 8,760
=¿ 2,190 kWh/m2
1,000
The wind map indicates that every (m 2) of area swept by the turbine blades should produce 2,190kWh
of energy/year at 10m height. If a turbine with a blade 80m in diameter is used, (with an area of 5,026
m2) the amount of energy flowing in the wind through the turbine would be:

2,190 × 5,026 = 11,006,940 kWh/year

Also it is an interesting observation, that the power rating of the generator would be approx. 250 x
5,026W or 1.26MW. If the wind farm could extract 30% of the energy in the wind (assuming the
efficiency of the complete system is 30%, a typical value) then the energy the wind farm would deliver
from each turbine-generator set at this site would be approximately 3,302,082 kWh/year.

4.3 Turbine and Generator Sizing

To extract the maximum amount of energy from a site the turbine size (blade diameter) needs to be
matched with the generator size and the site average wind velocity. To understand this concept, we
must first define Capacity Factor.

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 Capacity Factor (CF) =
Amount of energy generator produce∈a year
Amount of energywould produce at 100 % output 8,760/ year
If we match a large blade to a smaller generator at a particular site, we may cause the generator to
produce greater output much of the year so the capacity factor is high. However, since the generator
cannot utilize the full output from the turbine, the total amount of energy produced is far less than
could be produced if the generator were larger and utilized more of the energy available from the
turbine.

If the blade is made small and the generator made large, during high wind speeds the turbine may be
capable of producing enough energy so the generator can produce its full output, but at slower wind
speeds the generator will probably be running far below its ratings since the turbine cannot produce
sufficient power for most of the year. So the capacity factor will be small and the total energy output
will be less than optimal. For each site, with a particular average wind velocity, it is possible to calculate
a single best match (or optimal) between the turbine blade diameter and generator rating. To
approximate the capacity factor at a particular site using a single blade diameter, generator rating,
Equation (9) may be used [2].

Pr
CF≈0.087v Avg − (9)
D2
Where:

Pr = generator rated power in (kW)

vAvg =average wind velocity in (m/s)

D = rotor diameter in (m)

CF = expected capacity factor

Equation (9) assumes the wind takes on a Rayleigh density function for the probability of wind velocity
to provide an estimate for the best match between the generator and turbine diameter at a particular
site where the average annual wind velocity is known.

Using Equation (8), where Pr is the rating of the generator:

(Annual Energy Output) E = CF (8,760)P r (10)

Substituting Equation (9) into Equation (10):

Pr Pr
E = (0.087vAvg - ¿ ( 8,760 )Pr = 762 PrvAvg – 8,760
D2 D2
Taking the derivative of the energy with respect to generator size results in:

dE Pr Pr
=762 PrvAvg – (2)(8,760 ) =762vAvg 17,520
dPr D2 D2

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To find the maximum energy this equation is set to zero and solved for P r resulting in Equation (11)

Pr = 0.435D2 vavg (11)

E. Measured Data and Better Estimate. A far more exact estimate of the extracted energy that a
particular turbine-generator set can deliver per year at any particular site can be arrived at using
measured data. Site data is commonly measured for a year or more at a proposed wind farm site.
Typically, 10 minute measurements of wind speed are taken, along with temperature and other data.
Measured wind generator data is also provided by the manufacturer. This usually consists of actual
power output of the generator at each wind speed and the corresponding air density. This data,
corrected for expected tower height and altitude, is used to estimate the exact output of a wind
generator.

5.0 OFFSHORE TURBINE

In addition to land-based wind turbines, wind turbines located in the ocean, or offshore wind turbines
have emerged as an efficient source of renewable energy. In comparison to land-based wind turbines,
offshore turbines are subjected to higher wind speeds and are made in larger scale. Thus, offshore
turbines have the potential to produce more energy in a more efficient manner.

This design began in Europe in early 1980’s the design of offshore wind turbines is a relatively new
technology in United States. (EWEA ,Oct 2009) The reasons for this is because United States has more
success with wind energy on land than European countries due to the climate and geography of the
country.

As the land wind turbines, there are several characteristics and variables that need to be investigated
when selecting a suitable site for offshore turbine. The following characteristics should be examined

 Distance from the shore

 Proximity to power demand site, local electric companies, local airports
 Interference with telecom installations and lines of site fron onshore
 Interference with wildlife and avian population
 Existence of under-sea gas lines and cables
 Impact on existence on shipping routes

In term of assessing the effects of the surrounding environment on the performance of the wind
turbine, the existing wind condition, the depth to the bottom of the ocean, and the wave condition are
critical. Additional, currents, tides, ice loads and geotechnical properties associated with the sea-floor
soil must be taken into consideration. Malhotra (2009)

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Fig.5 Offshore wind turbine

5.1 The Offshore Tower Design

The offshore tower design was based on methods used for the land-based turbine design and included
the additional load due to the effect of wave as shown fig. 5.

The portion of the tower that remains above the sea Level is designed with same axial and lateral loads
as a landed-baser turbine. At the sea level, a breaking wave load is introduced as follows: (ASCE‐7‐
05, 2005).

FD = 0.5ywCDHb2 (12)

Where

yw = is the density of sea water, 64pcf

CD = is 1.75 for round columns

D = is the diameter of the tower at the sea level height

Hb = is the water depth times a reduction of 0.78

The hydrodynamic loads below the water surface are calculated by multiplying the water prism,

1 2
FWATER = ywh D by impact factor of two. In the prism equations, h is the water depth. The force 240 foot
2
tower with 40 feet submerged under water.

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5.2 The Offshore Foundation

The design chosen for the tower is driven steel monopole deep foundation which is acceptable for the
depth up to 165 feet. Since the wind turban is subjected to such excessive lateral forces, the foundation
must be designed to resist it. The method used to design the diameter and depth of the foundation was
Evan and Duncan’s chart which is based on the p-y method. The p-y method limit the design in term of
lateral load deflection, which must not exceed ½”. (Coduto, 2001). In the equation used to calculate the
characteristic share and moment loads, the diameter of the pile is assumed and checked for deflection.
The depth of the pile is determined by multiplying its diameter by 35 so that it is considered fixed at its
bottom for a correct analysis.

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Fig. 6 A typical wind and wave breaker for offshore wind turbine

5.3 Construction 0f Offshore Wind Turbines

The construction of offshore wind turbines can be summarized I three phases. First, the transportation
phase depends on the type of turbine and supporting structure being used. Most often the pieces of the
turbine are transported to barges located at the site of construction. Sometimes pieces can be
transported together after they are already assembled (i.e. the nacelle attached to the tower with the

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rotor also attached), but sometimes the turbine has to be shipped with the pieces separate. The barges
at the site are used as a construction platform for the second phase of construction of the erection.

A good balanced of both stability and maneuverability is a “ship-shaped vessel” which carried a rotating
crane. The last phase construction needed for the installation of an offshore turbine is installing
electrical wire in order to transport the generated electricity to the main land where it will be used.
These wire cannot float in an open ocean because of change of animal of marine vessel interference. In
order to prevent this, the wires can be buried under the sea floor. Many different method exist for
buying these wires however a method that has shown to be less invasive to the surrounding ocean floor
is called “hydro-plowing”. This method uses water to excavate a trench in which the wires can be
placed, and the trench is eventually filled with shifting sediment (Malhotra, 2009)

6.0 MAINTENANCE

Once the wind turbine is installed, some maintenance is required to keep it operating. The turbine
should be inspected at least once every year; however, twice is recommended. Most turbines will come
with a maintenance schedule and procedure when they are purchased. This procedure detail how the
blades, tower, foundation and mechanics are inspected and maintained. Maintenance increases the
overall life of the turbine and ensures that it runs smoothly.

REFERENCES

ASCE‐7‐05 (2005).  American Society of Civil Engineers. 

Coduto, D. (2001) foundation design: Principle and practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ; Prentice Hall: 2001

European wind energy Association EWEA (OCTOBER 2009)

EWEA, Wind Power Technology, The European wind Energy Association (EWEA). Brussels, Belgium,
2004.

Global Energy Concepts. (September 2009),www.powernaturally.org/Programs/Wind/toolkit/
9_windturbinetech.pdf 

González J. S., Rodríguez Á.G., Mora J. C., Santos J. R. and Payán M. B. A New Tool for Wind Farm
Optimal Design, IEEE Bucharest Power Tech Conference, Bucharest, Romania, 2009.

John Wiley and Sons. Masters, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, Hoboken, NJ, 200 94

Malhotra, S. (2009) Design and construction considerations for offshore wind turbine foundation in
North America. Civil Engineering Practice, 7-42

Mukund R. Patel, Wind and Solar Power Systems, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2006.

US Department of Energy: Energy Efficiency and renewable energy. Wind and hydropower technologies
program. www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/wind_technologies.html. (october2009)

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yan Riser and Mark Bolinger, Annual Report on Wind Power Installation, Cost and Performance Trends:
2006, NREL, Golden Colorado, 2006.

World Wind Energy Association, http://www.wwindea.org/, Accessed June 1, 2010.

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