JOSEPH M.

PETAOSKO

The AlchemlyJ of the Soul:

A Studu of Eric Hoffer's
Thoughts on Creativi tv

For the last 30 years. Eric Hoffer has produced a steady output
of books containing thoughts on the human condition. Begin·
ning with an explanation for the rise of mass movements in
The True Believer (1951), his work has broadened to include
topics such as the relationship of man and nature, the social
consequences of automation and the influence of drastic
change on human behavior. Creativity, manifested both by in-
dividuals and by whole cultures, has been one important focus
of his thought.
The purpose of this article is to organize Hoffer's thoughts
into something like a theory of creativity and to present a
critique of this theory. The expression "something like a
theory" is used since the end product may lack the detail
demanded by some methodologists.
Hoffer is an intuitive thinker in the mode of Montaigne or
Pascal, not an empirical social scientist. He has described
creativity in aphoristic bits and flashes rather than construct·
ing a formal mechanism for generating hypotheses about
creativity. Thus, any theory inferred from his writings will un-
doubtedly involve speculative elements and may even have
gaps. Despite deficiencies in any theory of creativity con-
structed, it could be useful in analyzing Hoffer's work.
Hoffer is an influential author whose work on the rise of mass
movements and other issues has been praised for its cogency
and insight. Although not a formally trained scholar, he has
read widely in numerous fields. especially history, sociology
and anthropology. His work benefits from a diversity of intel·
lectual sources and a richness of perspective not found in
more narrowly grounded writings on creativity. Studying

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 The Alchemy of the Soul: A Study of Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on Creativity

Hoffer's work helps one gain an appreciation for the complex

cultural roots of creativity.
A consideration of Hoffer's ideas may also prove useful to
researchers in that it might pay dividends. As cases in point,
his work has contributed to significant research in the psy-
chology of attitude formation (Rokeach, 1960) and has con-
tributed to a theory of the development of social revolutions
(Geschwender, 1968). Similarly, new avenues of empirical
research might be opened by examining his views on creative
behavior. Although Hoffer's theories of political change and
mass persuasion have been analyzed (Batty, 1970; Hunter,
1971), his writings on creativity have not received systematic
attention.
MAJOR THEMES An analysis of Hoffer's work would best be initiated by briefly
IN HOfFER'S summarizing some of his major themes. This is a necessity,
WORK
since he often discusses creativity in the context of complex
social events rather than an isolated phenomenon.
In The True Believer Hoffer proposed that individuals who
become passionate adherents of any mass movement have a
similar psychology. Because of frustration over personal lack
of fulfillment, with its attendant diminution of self-confidence
and self-esteem, an individual may reach out for substitutes-
faith and pride in some holy cause. The true believer becomes
an uncompromising adherent of some cause greater than
himself in order to escape his lack of success as an individual.
It matters little what the nature of the movement that becomes
the repository of his energy might be; it could be religious,
social, political or some combination thereof. Although mass
movements are, by definition, the work of many individuals,
they are set in motion by a relatively few disaffected intellec-
tuals, fanatics and men of action. The potential success of
the movement lies in the ability of these leaders to satisfy the
psychological needs of a population. The active phase of a
successful mass movement ceases when the revolutionary
changes advocated by its leaders are realized, gradually crys-
tallized into a new established order.
Moving beyond the psychology of mass movements, Hof-
fer's later work revealed his interest in a broad variety of social
phenomena. Three collections of essays following The True
Believer expressed his views on a variety of issues, many
dealing with problems of the post-World War II era. In The
Ordeal of Change (1963/1964), The Temper of Our Time
1967/1969) and First Things, Last Things (1971), Hoffer
dealt with many topics, but the single theme that perhaps
predominated was his exploration of the role of drastic

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change on human events. He came to believe that drastic

change has a potent influence on human behavior. For
example. drastic change may produce a fertile soil for the
growth of a mass movement; it can be the seedbed of revolu-
tion. This can occur when drastic economic or social upheaval
leads to the displacement of intellectuals who then agitate for
revolution. If there is no opportunity for a majority of persons
to advance themselves through individual action. a hunger for
substitutes may convert a large sector of the population into
prime candidates for the ranks of a mass. movement. Drastic
change does not inevitably trigger a mass movement. When
social circumstances are propitious. drastic change can pro-
vide the spur to great accomplishments in industrialization,
culture or other spheres of activity.
At first glance. it might appear that Hoffer has concentrated
only on problems of political sociology. However. this is not the
case. Interspersed throughout his writing are frequent dis-
cussions of the creative individual and the creative society (as
well as their opposites). This can be seen in his earliest writing
when he considers the role of a certain type of intellectual in
mass movements, the "non-creative men of words." Accord-
ing to Hoffer, such persons playa vital role in movements as a
source of the fanatics that are necessary to spread the gospel
of the new order. His continuing interest in creativity is mani-
fested in his later writing. in which he argues, for example, that
a creative society may be the best hope for a model for a
vigorous and stable civilization in a post·industrial age.
Hoffer writes of both the creative person and the creative
society. His comments on each of these topics will be used to
form the basis of a theory of creativity. All nine of his published
works are used as source material, including two books of
aphorisms (The Passionate State of Mind. 1955/1968; Re-
flections on the Human Condition. 1973/1974); two diaries
(Working and Thinking on the Waterfront. 1969; Before the
Sabbath, 1979), a book of brief essays (In Our Time. 1976)
and the four works previously cited.

CONDITIONS According to Hoffer (1955/1968). a person can gain a sense of

FAVORING worth in three ways: (a) by realizing talents in creative work;
CREATIVITY
IN AN (b) by purposeful action of some kind as in physical work,
INDIVIDUAL business activity or "practical" work of some kind; or (c) by
identifying with something apart from himself. Sheer action of
some kind •. practical work, provides the easiest method of
acquiring self-worth. Creative work emerges only when certain
circumstances allow the individual an opportunity to exercise
his or her abilities (e.g., when opportunities for practical work

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 The Alchemy of the Soul: A Study of Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on Creativity

are closed). The third path to self-worth, identification with a

cause, takes place when a mass movement arises to engage
the energies of a population.
In Hoffer's treatment of creativity, there are similarities to the
psychoanalytic formulations of personality that posit the exist-
ence of" psychic energy" which may be invested in a variety of
possible objects. In his view (1963/1964), many a creative
person would have become a "man of action" had the circum-
stances allowed for it. Creative persons are often individuals
whose craving for purposeful action and social rank have been
thwarted. Because they have natural endowments and ability,
their resulting frustration is transmuted by "the alchemy of the
soul" into creative production (Hoffer, 1971). Noncreative
intellectuals, intelligent persons whose creative products are
unappreciated or unrewarded, can alleviate their frustration by
participating in a mass movement.
What are the personal characteristics of the creative indio
vidual? Natural endowment or "talent," has already been men··
tioned. For Hoffer (1973/1974). talent means striving as much
as ability. He identifies talent with "vigor," a willingness to
overcome obstacles that can block creativity. In conjunction
with talent. expertise is needed - the requisite education and
training necessary to develop natural talent (Hoffer, 1963/
1964). The creative person must also have self-confidence,
but this is achieved only through the successful exercise of his
creative powers. Self-doubt in the creative person can be
removed by creative production (Hoffer. 1951).
According to Hoffer (1976/1979), a distinguishing char-
acteristic of the creative person is the ability to make much out
of nothing: "the creative know how to make a crumb of
experience go a long way" (I979). He appears to be referring
here to something like "ability to elaborate" or "divergent
production:' The creative person can generate a momentous
product from a small, or even trivial. idea. Hoffer (1973/1974)
also believes that the creative manifest flexibility in another
way; they have the ability to work with any kind of technique.
The latter is best illustrated in the arts. According to Hoffer
(1963/1964), the artistic innovator is often an untalented or
clumsy person who becomes an innovator precisely because
of his weaknesses. The untalented realize that their failures are
more likely to be discounted if they are attempting to develop a
new approach to artistic expression, but the genuinely creative
person (who can use any available technique) will build on the
work of innovators and use a new technique to produce work
of high originality and quality.

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 The Journal of Creative Behavior

The creative person has a belief in the possibility of sudden,

drastic change (Hoffer, 1969). In this respect, the creative
person is similar to the juvenile (i.e.•immature) person and the
aggressive businessman looking for new markets. To the crea-
tive person, the next moment may bring a crucial creative
insight, the next creative product (book. painting, etc.) may
bring a drastic turn of fortune.
Creativity. in Hoffer's view, requires leisure time. He cites his
own life as an example (Tompkins, 1968). Hoffer received no
formal education and worked most of his adult life as a migra-
tory field worker and longshoreman. His education and career
as a writer were developed during the leisure hours and off
days of a relatively routine working existence. Occasionally.
even enforced leisure can lead to creative production. Hoffer
(1967/1969) provides examples of historical periods when
this has occurred - unemployed scribes among ancient He-
brews, Egyptians and Chinese became writers, the founders of
great literary traditions.
In order to be creative. Hoffer (1971) believes that the
individual must practice self-denial, persistence and patience.
In somewhat of a contrast with these puritan virtues. he also
states that the creative person should have the ability not to
take himself seriously. The latter ability is perhaps linked with
the "playful mood" that Hoffer (1969) believes necessary for
creative production. Finally. Hoffer (1969) states that creativity .
springs from an "inner tension." With this. he seems to be
referring to the general psychological disequilibrium the
creative act seeks to rectify.
CONDITIONS Since Hoffer is a social thinker. it is not surprising that he has
FAVORING focused considerable attention on the nature of societies-
CAEATIVlTV
IN A both creative and noncreative. He theorizes that a number of
sOClrn factors are needed for cultural creativity. When these factors
have been present in a society, a widespread emergence of
creative individuals and creative products has often resulted.
According to Hoffer (1955/1968), for a society to foster
creativity. there must be a measure of individual autonomy for
its citizens. A heavily regimented or totalitarian society in
which the individual is hemmed in on all sides does not allow
for the free experimentation inherent in creative acts. Also
needed is a minimal level of economic well-being, for the
obvious reason that impoverished societies cannot afford the
"luxury" of creativity. since the energies of most of the popula-
tion are absorbed in addressing the needs of physical survival.
Two important factors for a creative society are derived from
Hoffer's hypotheses regarding the means by which an indi-

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 The Alchemy of the Soul: A Study of Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on Creativity

vidual can achieve self-worth. As was previously mentioned, he

(1955/1968) believes that an individual can achieve self-worth
through: (a) creative acts. (b) purposeful action or. (c) identifi-
cation with a cause. Given these possibilities. it follows that a
creative society would be one where the opportunities for
purposeful action or identification with a cause would be
limited. Some elaboration is needed to clarify this conclusion.
Hoffer (1955/1968) states that the creative society is one in
which opportunities for purposeful action are limited. What he
is getting at here is probably best illustrated by looking at the
opposite case. In societies where opportunities for action are
virtually unlimited. creativity often suffers. Two examples given
(1955/1968. 1969) are 19th century America and the Roman
Empire. After the cultural flowering of New England (e.g.
Emerson. Thoreau. Melville. Hawthorne) came a relatively
sterile period in which American energies were absorbed in
the opening of the West. the Civil War and the business
expansion of 1870s and 1880s.ln a somewhat similar vein. the
energies of the Romans were absorbed in maintaining a vast
empire. which partially accounts for their more modest crea-
tive contributions when compared to the Greeks. In Hoffer's
view. creativity is more likely to flourish in societies without the
hectic "boom town" atmosphere accompanying geographic
or industrial expansion.
Creativity is also more likely in the absence of the fervor
characterizing mass movement. Why is this so? As with the
action available in expansionist societies. a mass movement
develops into a vortex that pulls individuals in. draining energy
that could otherwise be used for creative acts. This is not to say
that creative individuals do 'not playa role in mass movements.
In Hoffer's view (1951). creative "men of words," articulate
intellectuals. set the stage for a mass movement by criticizing
the existing order and agitating for change. Noncreative "men
of words," persons with literary or intellectual pretentions who
have-been unsuccessful. are drawn to a mass movement and
become the fanatics who fuel the spark of revolution. However.
once a society is dominated by a mass movement it becomes
inhospitable to true creativity. Most human effort becomes
focused on the movement. leaving little time for individual
creative acts.
Arnonq factors Hoffer (1955/1968) mentions as spurs to
creativity in a society are: (a) reward for merit and. (b) a
comE·unal discipline, The first of these is obvious. A society
that alues certain types of human outputs will tend to get such
outputs. Hoffer (1967/1969) gives the example of Renals-

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 The Journal of Creative Behavior

sance Florence, which so prized achievement in painting and

sculpture that an informal spotting system evolved to identify
talented children who would then become apprenticed to
established artists. The creative artists who made their mark
were sought after by wealthy patrons and were among the
most highly honored inhabitants of the city. Recognition drove
artists to excel.
When Hoffer states that a communal discipline is useful for
creativity, he means that it is often useful for the creative
individual to have a prevailing orthodoxy against which to
rebel. He believes that in a totally free environment. where
everyone may do as they wish, there is a tendency for people to
imitate one another. The originality in creativity is best brought
out as a sort of protest against some existing establishment
view or some generally accepted school of thought (Hoffer,
1955/1968).
A final factor cited by Hoffer (1971) as a condition for
cultural creativity is an uJban setting. He theorizes that only in
cities do individuals have an optimal milieu for creativity-
close contact with great varieties of individuals with varying
-tastes, attitudes and philosophies. Paradoxically, despite the
density of population found in cities, it provides a greater
opportunity for solitude than village or small-town life. Hoffer
argues that this solitude, born of the anonymity of the crowd,
helps foster creative production. '
As a summary, conditions identified by Hoffer as furthering
creativity are shown in Table 1. The elements within the table
provide a working version of Hoffer's complete theory.
AELATIONSHIPS Examining the factors Hoffer cites as furthering creativity in
BETWEEN HOFF€A the individual person, one can find many parallels in the writing
AND OTHEA
WAITERS of other authors. His belief in the importance of talent (natural
endowment) and expertise (education) are echoed by most
writers on creativity. While Hoffer does not use the term "Intel-
ligence," the latter would appear to be close to his meaning of
"talent" or "endowment" Although considerable research
(starting with Getzels & Jackson, 1962) has supported the
hypothesis that creativity and intelligence are not equivalent,
it has also been reported that creativity is associated with a
minimal level of intelligence (Arieti, 1976; MacKinnon, 1968).
Regarding Hoffer's belief in the value of expertise (education).
few would dispute its value in developing natural talent. Even
the most gifted require education - education in the broad
sense of the term, including self-directed study.
That creative persons are selt-confldent has been verified by
research. For example, Rossman (1931) in a survey of 710

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 The Alchemy of the Soul: A Study of Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on Creativity

TASlE 1 Conditions identified by Eric Hoffer as furthering creative

production.

Individual Factors Societal Factors

Talent/Natural Endowment Individual autonomy
Expertise/Education Minimal economic well-being
Self-confidence Few opportunities for
Divergent production "action"
Ability to work with any Absence of mass movement
type of technique Reward for merit
Belief in the possibility of
Communal discipline
sudden, drastic change
Urban setting
Leisure
Self-denial/Persistence/
Patience
Playful mood
Inner tension

inventors found that self-confidence was often mentioned as

one of the characteristics of a successful inventor, Also, Mac-
Kinnon (1968) reported that creative architects displayed
more self-confidence in assessing themselves than did non-
creative architects.
The label "divergent production" was used tocommunicate
Hoffer's idea that the creative can produce much out of little.
The label was chosen, even though he does not use the term,
because it seemed to be an accurate description of his think-
ing. Divergent production has been described by Guilford
(1967) as part of his Structure-of-Intellect model. A similar
concept is embodied in many tests of creativity, such as the
Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.
Two factors in individual creativity postulated by Hoffer do
not appear to have ready equivalents in the literature. These
are his hypotheses that the creative have: (a) the abilityto work
with any type of technique, and (b) a belief in the possibility
of sudden, drastic change. It should be noted that these are
called factors that further creative production, but they might
also be viewed as simply characteristics of the creative
individual.
The final four individual creativity factors listed in Table 1
hflve been discussed by a number of writers. That leisure is

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 The Journal or Creative Behavior

needed for creative production may be substantiated byexarn-

ining the biographies ofwell-known creative individuals. Hardin
(1959) cites several examples of 19th century scientists such
as Darwin who had substantial leisure and freedom for crea-
tive pursuits. lt is reasonable to assume that self-denial. persist-
ence and patience are important factors, at least in some part
of the creative process (the process of "editing" to create the
final product). Ample empirical evidence exists to confirm the
importance of such traits. Rossman ( 1931 ) found that of 710
inventors surveyed "perseverence" was the trait most fre-
quently mentioned as a characteristic of the successful inven-
tor. Hoffer's hypothesis that a playful mood is needed for
creative production has received empirical verification by
Lieberman (1977). The idea of playfulness is also similar to
the free association and" removal of brakes" that accompany
the incubation phase of creative production (Parnes, 1972).
Finally, the inner tension that Hoffer identifies as part of the
creative process is congruent with psychoanalytic theory (Hall.
1954).
Hoffer's list of societal factors associated with creativity
probably have their closest parallel in the work of Arieti (1976)
who described nine characteristics of a "creativoqenic'' (i.e .•
creativity enhancing) society. For example. Hoffer's "individual
autonomy" is similar to two factors set forth by Arieti: (a)
tolerance for diverging views and, (b) freedom, or even reten-
tion of moderate discrimination. after severe oppression or
absolute exclusion, The latter factor is very similar to Hoffer's
( 1951 ) hypothesis that cultural creativity often occurs after the
active revolutionary phase of a mass movement ends. Both
Arieti and Hoffer believe that when social tension and pressure
are removed. energy becomes available for creativity as a sort
of rebound effect.
Similarities to Hoffer's factor minimal economic well-being
are found in Arieti's factors: (a) availability of cultural means
and, (b) free access to cultural media for all citizens without
discrimination. Although Arieti does not explicitly state that
economic well·being is needed for a society to be creative, this
is surely implied. A destitute society would, bydefinition, barely
have the means for physical survival, not to mention cultural
means (i.e., the physical and social superstructure needed by
artists, scientists and other creative persons).
Hoffer states that creativity in a society is more likely when:
(a) there are few opportunities for "action" and, (b) there is the
absence of a mass movement. He means, simply. thata society
wrapped up in things such as rapid industrialization or revolu-
tion has little energy left for creative pursuits. Arieti (1976)

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 The Alchemy of the Soul: A Study of Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on Creativity

makes no explicit mention of either"action" or mass move-

ments. He notes. however, that a society seeking creativity must
have elements of variety in its makeup. an "openness to cul-
tural stimuli:"
A creativogenic culture must be concerned with more
than such positive goals as safety. security and the
preservation of the physical environment. It must not
focus exclusively or excessively on only one aspect
of human life. whether that be religion. militarism,
comfort. sensuousness. or something else.
Two more parallel factors of Hoffer and Arieti might be
mentioned. What Hoffer calls reward for merit. Arieti calls
promotion of incentives and rewards, The two are directly
equivalent concepts. Hoffer states that an urban setting pro-
vides the most likely place for the social communication and
interchange needed to stimulate creative production. Arieti
lists a similar factor. "interaction of significant persons:' He
provides examples of historical periods (e.g .•the Renaissance.
the American Revolution) in which such interaction led to
great creativity.
A factor Hoffer mentions as promoting creativity. communal
discipline. does not seem to have a direct equivalent in Arieti's
creativogenic factors. However. there are many historical ex·
amples in art (e.g .. Romanticism as a reaction to Classicism)
to support Hoffer's contention. Kuhn (1962) presented a theory
of scientific revolutions that is similar to Hoffer's notion that
a creative breakthrough sometimes develops as a reaction to
an organized. entrenched school of thought.
CRITIQUE OF It should be reiterated that Hoffer developed his theory of
HOFFER'S THEORY creativity through studies of history and by introspection of his
own creative processes. Rather than empirical investigation,
his method used intuition and analogical thinking. The result
is not a set of interlinked hypotheses and laws. It is more a
set of preconditions - ingredients for a recipe to produce
creativity. The theory of creativity explicated in the previous
.sections and summarized in Table 1 constitute those factors
identified by Hoffer that increase the probability of creativity
emerging in a person or in a culture.
It was shown that parallels can be drawn between Hoffer's
factors of creativity and the theoretical formulations of other
authors. However. the question arises, has he produced any-
thing new or anything of value? The tentative conclusion to
this question is yes. The uniqueness and value of his work lies
both in its overall impact and in certain specific details of
his theory.

~041 '/
 The Journal of Creative Behavior

In terms of its overall impact, Hoffer's is a thoroughly inter-

actionist theory of creativity. Although for purposes of dis-
cussion a division was made between individual and societal
factors, it is clear that Hoffer views the creative individual as
an integral part of a larger collective whole. Those factors
making up a creative individual are inter-related with those
that make for a creative society. To take one example, leisure
(which was listed as one of the factors fostering creativity in
an individual) presupposes a minimal level of economic well-
being, one of the factors identified as fostering creativity in
a society. Also, a society with economic well-being would cer-
tainly be more likely to afford leisure time to its citizens - thus
giving a spur to creativity in individuals. Hoffer's theory reminds
us that the work of building creative persons is partly the work
of an entire society. Although the individual genius does crop
up occasionally in an unlikely spot, more than likely the crea-
tive person will arise out of a favorable set of social circum-
stances.
What are some unique aspects of Hoffer's theory? Among
individual factors, two were identified: (a) the ability of the crea-
tive to work with any type of technique and, (b) the belief of
the creative in the possibility of sudden, drastic change. Pos-
sible empirical research of these factors would require more
precise definitions and, eventually, operational definitions. To
test whether the creative can, indeed, work with any kind of
technique would mean clearly defining "technique" and arrang·
ing a descriptive or experimental study. The latter would most
likely involve artistic creativity, or possibly a convergent prob-
lem-solving task wherein a variety of techniques could be used
to solve the same problem. When Hoffer states that creative
persons tend to believe in the possibility of sudden drastic
change, he may be referring to a personality trait related to
risk·taking behavior or what experts in testing call "the set to
gamble" (Stanley & Hopkins, 1972). Again, more work would
need to be done in defining terms before research could take
place.
Hoffer's unique contribution to an understanding of societal
factors related to creativity are an outgrowth of his theory of
mass movements. His contribution is the highlighting of those
social factors that work against creativity - a mass movement
or some social upheaval that creates opportunities for "action"
and thus drains energy which otherwise might have been used
for creative production. His hypotheses related to societal
factors obviously do not lend themselves to narrow laboratory
tests, but they can provide a guide to historians. political

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 The Alchemy of the Soul: A Study of Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on Creativity

scientists and other investigators who are seeking to interpret

the achievements of societies as a whole.
The usefulness of Hoffer's ideas would be enhanced by a
clearer definition of creativity. One limitation of Hoffer is that
he does not consistently distinguish between creativity with a
"small COO (e.g .• technological invention. everyday inventive-
ness to solve practical problems) and creativity with a "capital
COO (e.g .• Greek philosophy. Renaissance painting). The clear
implication of Hoffer's writing is that a mass movement is
inimical to creativity with a capital c. but is it necessarily a hin-
drance to all types of creative output? More exploration and
clarification is needed on this point.
In only a few places in his writing does Hoffer distinguish
among types of creativeness and how they are affected by
social conditions. One such instance appears in his last work.
wherein he speculates on why scientists. ballet dancers and
musicians are more likely than artists and writers to achieve
excellence in Soviet Russia. He states: "Even without censor-
ship. literature and art will not thrive where there are no friend'
ship. no free conversation. no shame and no extravagant
dreams. Moreover. science. ballet and so on live each in its
own world. while literature and art derive their nourishment
from the social milieu" (Hoffer. 1979). A slightly restated
version of the hypothesis would be as follows: societal condi-
tions that inhibit free communication affect socially dependent
areas of creativity (art and literature) while those areas of crea-
tivity that have strong aspects of technique or craft (music and
science) are not so affected. Whether the hypothesis can be
supported for a variety of time periods is a matter for historical
investigation and interpretation.
A number of times Hoffer expresses the belief that if a
society has too much "action" available (adventurous activi-
ties of one kind or another). the result will be diminished crea-
tivity. The fact that Hoffer himself identified counter-examples
to this rule would indicate that a firmer conception is needed
of when "action" is a hindrance and when it is not. Although
action usually means distraction from creative pursuits. Hoffer
(1979) cited the Elizabethan age and the 19th century as two
periods in England when economic and political activity co-
existed with great creativity (in literature). His hypothesis would
gain in utility with the development of a more sophisticated
conception of "action" - perhaps linking its availability with
the social class composition of a society. Presumably. certain
individuals could be drawn either to creativity or action. What
are their economic and sociological characteristics? More
detailed theorizing here might provide narrower and more
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 The Journal of Creative Behavior

accurate boundaries for the applicability of Hoffer's hypo-

thesis. It may be, for example, that the "action as damper of
creativity hypothesis" best works in explaining societies with a
large middle class or merchant class.
Some of Hoffer's comments on creativity make it appear
that he views creativity in exclusively negative terms. For
example, Hoffer (1963/1964) comments that some creative
individuals would not have been creative had they been given
power or influence. Thus viewed. creativity seems to be a reac-
tion against thwarted needs, a sort of by-product of resent·
ment. That he does not view creativity in exclusively negative
terms can be ascertained by a more detailed examination of
his writing.
Hoffer's hypothesis is that creativity's origins are in the dark
impulses at the root of human nature - striving for power and
mastery over the physical and social environment. Human
advancement occurs by consciously developing those things
that help ensure safety and survival; creative insights are an
essential part of this process. Man is an unfinished animal
without the specialized organs found in other creatures. Crea-
tivity is part of man's uniqueness. Although the ultimate spurs
of creativity are negative, the actual creative act and the
products derived from it are positive in that they provide feel-
ings of self-worth and accomplishment for the creator and
contribute to overall human advancement. As Hoffer (1971 )
puts it:
The sublimity of man manifests itself not in the purity
and nobility of his impulses and motives but in the
alchemy of his soul, which transmutes meanness and
savagery into things of beauty and into thoughts and
visions which reach unto heaven. The primordial slime
is always within us and we become uniquely human
as we process it.
Hoffer's beliefs regarding optimal social organization pro-
vide more evidence that he views creativity as a positive force.
For him, creativity may hold the key to the stability and pros'
perity of future society. Hoffer (1967/1969) believes that with
sufficient effort. the great masses of a society can receive
expertise (education and training) in some areas. If the proper
social structure can be implemented. these individuals can
draw upon their expertise to exercise their creative powers.
Creative production was identified by Hoffer as one of the
primary means of achieving self-worth. A society in which
most individuals are engaged in creative pursuits will be a
society with psychological health and social balance. It would

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 The Alchemy of the Soul: A Study of Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on Creativity

be an inhospitable climate for the growth of a mass move-

ment, since a mass movement thrives on the personalities of
the unfulfilled.
To effect a creative society. Hoffer (1967/1969) visualizes a
social system consisting of a geographic region subdivided
into "school districts," Each district would have a self-deter-
mined organization and would attract its own voluntary ad-
herents. Each would be "charged with the realization and
cultivation of its material and human resources. Production of
the necessities of life would be wholly automated I~ince the
main purpose of life would be for people to learn and grow."
Much could be said about the feasibility of such a scheme.
(The thought of modeling society on school districts, however,
would probably cause many educators to react with horror.)
The major point is that Hoffer sees creativity as more than the
private concern of a cultural elite. In his writing, it becomes a
vehicle for individual and social development. Thus, the pur'
pose of Hoffer's theorizing is not only to understand creativity,
but also to offer a plan of social reconstruction.
At the end of The True Believer, Hoffer (1951 ) gives credit
to mass movements for the miraculous power to raise stag-
nated and dead societies back to life. An analysis of his later
writings shows that he gives credit to creativity for an equally
miraculous power- a power less dramatic, but no less signifi-
cant. Hoffer believes that creativity can provide the sustaining
energy to maintain the health and vitality of already living
societies.

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 The Journal of Creative Behavior

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Joseph M. Petrosko. Associate Professor of Education.

Address: University of Louisville. Belknap Campus, Louisville. Kentucky 40292.

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