The history of Azerbaijan as an independent state has its roots in ancient

times. Since that, a number of developed states have existed in its territory, the
population of which consisted of various ethnic tribes.

The formation of large tribal unions in this territory took place during the
Iron Age, that is, in the 1st millennium BC. The oldest state formation in these
lands is Manna, existed from the 10th to the 7th centuries BC. Various types of
crafts were widely developed here, including jewelry and ceramics.

Another ancient eastern state that is directly related to the history of

Azerbaijan is Media (an ethno-geographical region in the west of modern Iran), or
the later - Median kingdom, lasted a little more than a hundred years - in the 7th-
6th centuries BC. It was Media who finally conquered Manna. Being a very
militant state, it, however, was conquered by the Persian king Cyrus II and turned
into one of the Persian provinces. After the death of Alexander the Great, the last
satrap of Media Aturpatak (Atropate) proclaimed himself king in the north of his
former satrapy (province), in the area of Lake Urmia, thus founding the state of
"Midia Minor", or - "Media Atropatena", or simply "Atropatena". Later, the
toponym "Azerbaijan" arose from the word "Atropatena".

In the territory of modern Azerbaijan (to the north of the Araks River) in the
4th century. BC. the Albanian kingdom, or Caucasian Albania, uniting many
tribes, was formed. The borders of the Albanian kingdom stretched from modern
Derbent in the north to the Araz / Araks river in the south, and from the Caspian
Sea in the east to the Alazani Valley and Nakhchivan in the west. Roman historians
reported that there were much more settlements in Albania than there were
settlements in Atropatena, Iberia and Armenia altogether. They listed 29 names of
cities and large settlements in Albania, among which Gabala and Shamakhi are, in
particular, mentioned.

In the territories of both state formations, as a result of long-term

archaeological research (continuing to this day), rich material has been revealed
that makes it possible to judge the level of social and economic development,
customs, beliefs of the peoples inhabiting this region, as well as the degree of skill
in various types of crafts, including the pottery.

CERAMIC PRODUCTION ON THE TERRITORY

AZERBAIJAN IN THE AGE OF BRONZE AND IRON.

The most ancient samples of handicrafts and, first of all, ceramic products,
found on the territory of Azerbaijan, belong to the Mesolithic era, that is, XII - VIII
millennium BC. Since ancient times, ceramic production has played one of the
leading roles in these lands. This is evidenced by numerous archaeological finds in
the southern and central parts of Transcaucasia, starting from the Late Bronze Age
(IX century BC) and Early Iron Age (VIII century BC).

Zoomorphic vessels, which are mainly water containers, represented the

images of:

- horse

- deer

- tour

- sheep

- various birds - pigeon, duck.

 Very often, various parts of the vessels are decorated with dotted
ornaments of complex configuration, sometimes forming triangles.

As a rule, such vessels are intended for ritual purposes. The liquid poured
into them acquired sacred properties due to the image of one or another animal (for
example, a deer, as one of the incarnations of a solar deity) and geometric figures
formed with pricks and carrying a certain cult symbolism.

Various scholars who studied the archaeological material found on the

territory of Azerbaijan noted that aquarian vessels/water containers shaped like
birds, or bowls in the form of a ram's head, rhytons with the image of a ram's or
deer's head, and a number of other zoomorphic motifs were undoubtedly associated
with the beliefs of the ancient tribes.

Pottery items dating back to the Eneolithic (4th - 3rd millennium BC) and
Bronze Age (2nd millennium BC) are made using the black firing technique and
contain elements of pictographic writing in their decorative decoration. For
example, black-fired vessels of the 2nd millennium BC. from Khanlar (now the
Goy-Gol region), as well as Kakha and Sheki. Here are drawings of imitation
magic of hunters, which are distinguished by a schematic and conditional
character. Perhaps one of the pictograms is associated with the upcoming holiday
of the spring equinox - Novruz Bayram.

The culture of inlaying black-polished ceramics with white mass was

widespread in Eastern Transcaucasia. In such vessels, ornamentation and images
stand out with their white outlines against a black background. This contrasting
color effect is an artistic discovery of the Bronze Age, which was used by the
ceramists of Mingachevir, Khanlar (Goygol) and other settlements of the country.
It should be noticed a huge variety of ornamentation of such vessels. One
can see here both geometric patterns and stylized images of people and animals.
Both types of ornamentation often coexist in one vessel, forming compositions of
rich semantic meaning.

Black glazed jugs. Gey-Gel. 2nd mil. B.C.

 Gey-Gel. 2nd mil. B.C.

Kah. Valley of mounds Minberek. Mound

number 3. 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC.

Among the discovered material of this type of ceramics, one can see vessels
of various purposes and different shapes: vessels for ceremonial (or cult) purposes,
household ceramics - vessels in the form of jugs, cups, bowls. Jugs are
distinguished by a special variety of shapes and sizes. Among the samples found,
there are dishes of the highest quality and products of medium quality, intended for
everyday needs.

But there is one feature that is common to all vessels of this group -
white-inlaid ceramics - regardless of their intended purpose: almost all of them,
with a few exceptions, are decorated with ornaments. At the same time, some
specimens are distinguished by such a high skill of decoration, arrangement of
compositions from geometric and stylized patterns and their distribution over the
body of the vessel, which allows us to speak here not only about the inner meaning
of the pattern, but also about its decorative expressiveness.

Character and motifs of patterns on black-polished vessels:

- geometric patterns

- images of animals and people

- small pattern or

- large geometric figures covering a part of the body of the vessel,

- grouping certain motives into rapports or

- free arrangement of depictions on ceramic surface.

Quite often, when ornamenting vessels, the carpet principle of decoration

was used: free areas were filled with smaller details. Small sized images of
animals, cruciform signs and swastikas, along with decorative handles or moldings
were used in such additional patterns.

Among all images the most numerous are images of animals. Mostly these
are images of deer, goats, dogs, birds, less often are the drawings of a wild boar, or
bison. The images of animals on the vessels are distinguished by a pronounced
geometrized or stylized character.

Among the birds represented on the ceramic products of this group, the
waterfowl kinds predominate, and above all are geese and swans. There is also an
image of a peacock.
 Images of the human figure, whether naturalistic and geometrized, are
usually associated with presentation of the cult of hunting, or fertility, or
reproduction and the tree of life as well.

The cult of the Sun, which was in circulation among the population of ancient
Azerbaijan in the Bronze Age, was reflected in a wide range of signs and images.
These signs can be read from various artifacts of that period, including ceramic
products. Among them:

- spiral and swastika,

- vortex and crossed circles.

Symbolic image of the sun was found on pottery from the settlements of
Kultepe I and II (Kazakh region).

Dishes decorated with rosettes or circles became widespread in the early

Iron Age. Astral signs in the form of vortex and crossed circles are found not only
among the petroglyphs of Azerbaijan, but also on stone gravestones, ancient ritual
stones and ceramics. There are a lot of them among the rock carvings of Gobustan
and Gemigaya – that is a circle with two rays or a crosshair.

A number of animals were also associated with the cult of the sun. They
were considered either as gods of the Sun, or as symbols of heavenly fire, or
divine (royal) power.

The image of a ram is one of the most common in the design of ceramic
products in ancient Azerbaijan both in the form of a painting, or in a plastic
representation in zoomorphic vessels.

- Handle in the form of a ram's head,

- relief images of rams on vessels,
- the presence of an image of a ram's head with spiral horns on spouts, handles,
necks of vessels, a schematic image of ram's horns
- all this indicates the presence of a ram cult in ancient Azerbaijan.
Some researchers associate the symbolism of the ram with sunrise and
sunset.
A significant place among the zoomorphic vessels of the ancient period
found on the territory of Azerbaijan is occupied by vessels associated with a horse.
As mentioned earlier, among the artifacts found, there are a significant number of
sculptural vessels in the form of a horse. Along with them, many traditional
ceramic vessels decorated in one way or another with the figure of a horse or
individual elements indicating this animal were found. The symbolism of the horse
is associated with the deity of rain and moisture, so a vessel in the form of a horse
was used in the rite of inducing rain and humidity. Another meaning of the horse
image was associated with the cult of the Sun. The horse was considered as the
personification of the Sun and was related with a symbol of fertility. Also, the tour
(mountain goat) was one of the incarnations of the sun god.
A striking example of white-inlaid black-glazed ceramics is a vessel found in the
village of Garajamirli (Shamkir region of Azerbaijan) and dating from the
16th-15th centuries BC.
The upper half of the jug is covered with two tiers of images, in which geometric
figures and solar signs alternate with images of a horse and a deer, and zoomorphic
motifs are literally woven into the dense geometric fabric of the pattern, which
carries a deep semantic load. Interestingly, the boundaries between the two
ornamented tiers are emphasized not by an intermediate border, but by a plastically
marked "cord". Such additional "seams" seem to become a measure of reference, a
visualization of the growth of the pitcher's shape, at the same time giving it
additional rigidity and stability.

Speaking about the white-encrusted vessels found in the territory of Ancient

Azerbaijan, it should be emphasized that it is the presence of images of animals,
birds and people in their ornamentation that makes them unique, fundamentally
distinguishing these products from similar ones that were widely used in the
territory from southern Siberia to Central Europe.

A black-polished vessel. II-nd millennium BC.

Chovdar village, Dashkesan region

A special attention was drawn to the active plastic elaboration of the body of the
vessel, distinguished with striking constructive clarity and tectonics of its structure.
The vessel is an absolutely symmetrical vertical shape. Its lower half is exactly
mirrored in its upper part . The diameter of the stem of the vessel is equal to the
diameter of the neck. The ribbed belt, covering the upper tier of the body and, as it
were, imitating circular rotation with the help of a slight inclination of the flutes,
gives the form not only emphasized stability, but also a purely individual character.
It is a solid, completed form, created by a master - a brilliant connoisseur of his
craft and endowed with impeccable artistic taste.

The vessels are often decorated with two ornamental tiers that are triangles
interacting with each other, which can be read both from top to bottom and from
bottom to top. The motif of a triangle, often shaded, so that the rows take on a
mirror character, belongs to a variety of geometric ornament, systematically used
in the decoration of ceramics produced in Azerbaijan. As a rule, the symbolic
meaning of such decor is associated with the imitation of the sun's rays, in other
words, with the sign of the solar deity. Other meanings that are attributed to this
sign are the symbols of life, fire, flame, a symbol of the spiritual world, or the
connection between the heavenly and earthly worlds.

Thus, the black polished pottery of the cult purpose of the Bronze and
Early Iron Ages is a multifaceted phenomenon.

Four groups can be identified here. These are:

- zoomorphic vessels

- anthropomorphic ceramics

- products in the form of communicating vessels,

- the vessels-boots.

Ceramic vessels of zoomorphic and anthropomorphic nature constitute the

most numerous group; it can also be attributed to the art of sculpture. Both the
shapes of the vessels themselves and their plastic design in the form of moldings
on spouts, necks or handles are associated with sculpture here.
The earliest samples of ceramics with elements of sculpture date back to the
Bronze Age. And this is, first of all, zoomorphic plasticity, represented in ceramics
and metal, which is associated with the spread of totemic beliefs in this territory.
Zoomorphic pottery, representing the figures of various birds and animals,
was widespread in the territory of ancient Azerbaijan. Having originated here in as
early as the 2nd millennium BC, the traditions of ceramic production continued to
live for more than two millennia, right up to the first centuries of our era, in the
bowels of the art of the ceramics masters of Caucasian Albania. This, of course,
was facilitated by totemistic and animistic representations and rituals, which were
practiced by the local population from ancient times and continued to be relevant
in the beliefs of the ancient Albanians.
Images of a duck, dove, goose, deer, goat, horse, tour, snake, turtle,
monkey, bull, ram, and many other animals make up a colossal, numerous
entourage in narrative paintings and in inlaid black-glazed and painted ceramics,
which have been produced for many centuries in this territory. Totemic and
animistic representations also contributed to the creation of cult images of animals
and birds in a three-dimensional, plastic embodiment in the form of zoomorphic
vessels. Thus, the beliefs became the basis for the synthesis of cult-ritual purpose
and everyday functionality.

A black-glazed vessel from a barrow burial in Mingachevir, 2nd

millennium BC.

Two oppositely located profile figures of doves are molded in the form of a
high relief on the shoulders of the vessel. The elliptical shape of the lid, made in
the form of two united birds, ends with the heads of pigeons raised from both sides.
 An interesting sample in this group is a gray-clay zoomorphic vessel
dating back to the 10th-9th centuries. BC, found in the village of
Mollamageramly, Fizuli region.

The vessel is a stylized figure of a spherical bird, the sides of which are
plastically worked out in the form of five relief ribs on each side. This emphasizes
the plastic nature of this vessel. The decorative expressiveness of the exhibit is
emphasized by the inlaid eyes with beads, as well as such plastic elements as relief
arcs emphasizing the eyes, and two protrusions made by moldings and designating
the tuft of a bird.

Vessel of grey burnt clay with a polished surface, V-III centuries BC, in the
form of a dove.
 Water container is made in smooth, streamlined forms, on the body, with the
help of relief lines, the bird's wings are barely marked. The proportions of the
shape of the vessel are in harmony with each other.

Researchers of Azerbaijani ceramics of the ancient and Albanian periods

associate the creation of zoomorphic vessels with the ideas of ancient people about
the afterlife. The depictions of birds on pottery among the burial mound inventory,
as well as the plastic representation of birds in the form of zoomorphic vessels,
found in large numbers during excavations, give grounds to consider such vessels
primarily as receptacles for the souls of the buried.

In black-glazed pottery discovered in a number of archaeological

excavations (in particular, in Khanlar (Goy-gel), Sarytepe (Kazakh region)), there
were vessels with a linear and plastic image of snakes.

"... in all cases, snakes are depicted reaching for the neck of the vessel to
participate in a joint meal with the deceased."

It should be noted that the image of a snake has a very complex and
contradictory semantics. On the one hand, she acts as a symbol associated with
fertility, female productive power, water, rain, on the other hand, as a symbol of
the hearth, fire (heavenly), the male fertilizing principle. In archaic cultures, the
snake expresses the separation and connection of heaven and earth. The snake is
also often considered as a symbol of the underworld and the realm of the dead. The
snake was one of the attributes of the Greek goddess of wisdom Athena, as well as
the Greek god of healing Asclepius.
 Zoomorphic vessel with a relief image of a snake: the grey clay jug is
distinguished by the constructive elegance of its shape. The body is decorated with
a relief image of a snake placed in the vertically central sector of the vessel and
encircling the jug along the entire radius.

Probably, this principle of decorating vessels is associated with a protection

of the contents of the vessel from "evil spirits“. Mingechevir. 4-3 cc.B.C.

The yellow-clay jug from Mingachevir (I c. B.C-I c. A.D). The tubular

spout is emphasized by a snake around it.
 A fragment of a dish found in Gabala and dating back to the 3rd-2nd
centuries B.C. There is an image of a snake on the ceramic shard, interpreted
realistically, in contrast to the stylized representation on many other ceramic
items.

It should also be noted a huge number of bronze bracelets found in the

burials of Mingachevir, imitating a snake biting its tail or twisted into a spiral. A
number of Azerbaijani scientists suggest that such an image of a snake corresponds
to the symbol of the moon. The coiled snake was identified with the cycle of
phenomena: it is both the solar principle and the lunar one, life and death, light and
darkness, good and evil, wisdom and blind passion, healing and poison, keeper and
destroyer, spiritual and physical rebirth.

Among the ancient samples, it is interesting to note such a variety of

zoomorphic vessels as vessels in the form of animal heads. Such, in particular, is a
black-clay vessel of the 8th-6th centuries. BC. from Gadabay, currently stored
in the State Historical Museum in Moscow. This figurative vessel, made in the
shape of a bull's head, is characterized by naturalistic reproduction and is marked
by a rather interesting detail: a triangle is carved on the forehead of the animal,
almost completely filling the bridge of the nose. Similar triangles often accompany
identical vessels, and are usually placed on the forehead between the eyes and
undoubtedly have cult significance.

In this typology of figured vessels, there are also those in which the body has its
own traditional shape, while the neck is presented in the form of an animal's head.

An interesting and extensive group of vessels found on the territory of Azerbaijan

during the Bronze and Iron Ages are communicating vessels. A striking example
of this variety is a gray-clay vessel found in the Mingachevir region and dating
back to the 10th-9th centuries BC.
 Three more miniature jugs adjoin the shoulder of the vessel, and this gives a
single monolithic composition a unique character. In terms of its design and
decorative features, this product is the rarest example of the presented group. In
contrast to the standard structure in this typological group, when three volumes are
interconnected by means of internal bridges, in this example, three communicating
vessels are united by a single shell, which is a large, skillfully made jug.
Undoubtedly, here we can talk about the creative rethinking of old, traditional
forms and the creation of an absolutely original sample. There are three secondary
small vessels on the shoulders of the large vessel, which greatly enrich the plastic
appearance of the product. The constructive forms of the bodies, necks, handles of
the main and secondary vessels simultaneously serve decorative purposes. It
should be note once again that this sample of communicating vessels is
undoubtedly exceptional in terms of its plastic and aesthetic qualities, while the
rich archaeological material from the jar burials of Mingachevir contains many
communicating vessels of a simpler structure.

Compounded vessels. I c.B.C – I c. A.D

This object is a collection of three vessels interconnected by internal hollow
partitions. Three jugs without handles of pale pink color are combined into a single
space-plastic volume. The shoulders of the vessels are decorated with a double row
of pricks, but the aesthetic value of this vessel is due primarily to the constructive
architectonics of the forms, and not to this decorative technique. The plastic and
artistic expressiveness of this category of vessels in the ceramic products of
Ancient Azerbaijan is associated primarily with the design features of the form.

Dimensions: Height - 7 cm; the maximum diameter is 6.5 cm; the diameter of each
neck is 5.5 cm, the diameter of the bottom is 4 cm.

Red clay ceramics. Mingechevir. I c.B.C – I c. A.D

Communicating vessels were dedicated to the cult of fertility and

reproduction: they were used in the performance of ritual ceremonies associated
with this cult; also, he was patronized by a solar deity.... Communicating vessels
are created according to the principle of reproduction. They imply the generation
of new young beings from old ones.
 Another version of the purpose of this type of vessels: connection with the cult of
the dead: according to the ancient inhabitants of Azerbaijan, each person had
several souls, one of which left him in the grave. The food left in the ancient
graves was intended for the souls of the dead. Food was usually left in vessels of
various shapes. According to legend, each soul, based on its function, was fed from
a vessel intended for it. And if the heir of the deceased was equally afraid of all the
souls of his deceased ancestor and wanted to honor them equally, then he ordered
communicating vessels for them, consisting of vessels of the same type. Such
products were not uncommon in the Mingachevir burials.

Sometimes the heirs gave more preference to one soul of the deceased. Then for
her they could order a large and beautiful jug, on the shoulders of which they
placed the same type of vessels for the rest of the souls. Such products are very
rare.

Vessels-boots, the most interesting variety of black ceramics of ancient

Azerbaijan, are most likely associated with the cult of the dead. A similar type of
ceramic products from the Early Iron Age, according to the results of
archaeological excavations, existed in a number of other countries of the world: in
Northern Italy and Hungary, Saxony and Moravia, Poland and the Caucasus.

Vessels-boots are made by hand molding. In some cases, they had embossed
rims as an imitation of anklet-amulets. It is noteworthy that, as a rule, only one
boot, designed for one foot, was found in burials, although sometimes very
interesting finds also occurred. For example, in the village of Hasanly (on the
territory of modern South Azerbaijan), a vessel was found in the form of two
boots, united by one bootleg. Boots with turned up toes were decorated with
notches imitating internal seams.
 There are many hypotheses in the literature regarding the purpose of such
items placed in graves during burial. One of them is that the image of feet and
shoes had a meaning akin to the image of dolphins and fish. They were placed in
the grave of the dead in order to facilitate their difficult journey to the land of
the blessed. The belief in the transmigration of souls to the land of the blessed is
mixed with the idea of the later life of the deceased in the grave.

хххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххххх

An original historical and artistic phenomenon is the material culture of

Nakhchivan, which, starting from the Bronze Age, is characterized by painted (or
painted) red clay ceramics, which were created here along with black polished
ceramics. This is evidenced by archaeological finds in the settlements of Kultepe
I and II (the painted vessels found here date back to the Eneolithic), as well as
Gyrmyzy-Tepe, Shor-Tepe, Shakhtakhty, Nahadzhyr, Arafsa, and a number of
others. The archaeological material found here, dating back to the 17th-15th
centuries. BC, is a spherical vessels of painted red-fired ceramics. Attention is
drawn to the variety of forms of dishes, due to its various functions. The jugs were
handmade and covered with engobes in red, yellow and white. Ornamentation was
executed in red and black paints.

Kyultepe I.

Kyultepe I.
Kyultepe II.

Kyultepe II.
 Gyzylvank.

One of the most striking images of Nakhchivan ceramics is a jug from the
Shakhtakhty necropolis, which is a true masterpiece of ancient ceramic painting.

Mid 2 mil. BC. Made by hand, it is notable for its striking elegance of form.
Two-thirds of the body of the jug is covered with painting representing two tiers of
a frieze composition. The painting, made with black paint on a red engobe, is
striking in its naturalism.

Images of goats, wolves, and other four-legged animals are intertwined here with
various types of birds – whether large and small. In particular, images of a duck, a
peacock, a heron are clearly read here. But along with the realistic approach in this
painting, one can also see purely symbolic elements, echoing the geometrized
images familiar to us from carpets and rugs..

Thus, the ceramic art of ancient Azerbaijan is mainly characterized by

three cultures of pottery production. These are:

- black-polished ceramics,

- inlaid black-polished ceramics

- painted ceramics.

According to their purpose in everyday life and society, the pottery of these
cultures had both utilitarian and cult character. Painted ceramics is most
characteristic of the ancient culture of Nakhchivan.
 The presence of a centuries-old tradition of ceramic production in the
ancient land of Azerbaijan and the centers of pottery that have been preserved here
since ancient times determined the diversity of ceramic products produced in this
region in subsequent centuries and, above all, during the existence of Caucasian
Albania, which in many ways became the successor of historically established
forms.

CERAMIC PRODUCTION IN CAUCASUS ALBANIA

(4 c. BC – end of 7 c. AD)

The Albanian kingdom, or Caucasian Albania, which united many tribes,

was formed on the territory of modern Azerbaijan in the 4th century BC. BC. As
you know, in addition to the Albanians, numerous ethnic groups lived on the
territory of this state. Ethnic diversity can serve as an explanation for the huge
variety of archaeological material, and above all - pottery found in various regions
of the proposed territory of Caucasian Albania. Each group basically occupied its
own territory, had a specific inventory, a special technique for making pottery, and
a specific ornament.

Among the various crafts that were in circulation in Albania, pottery was
undoubtedly the predominant one. Throughout the entire period of the existence of
Caucasian Albania, the range of ceramic products expanded, as well as the style
and quality of individual forms and objects changed. A characteristic feature of
ceramic production in the country was the active use of ceramics not only in
everyday life, but also in rituals and funeral rites. In many graves in various
archaeological sites, as a rule, there were from 50 to 70 items of pottery.
 The most extensive ceramic material was found during excavations in such
cities as Gabala (Yaloylutepe), Mingachevir, Agsu (Nargizava), Shamakhi,
Ismayilli (Mollaisakly), Sheki.

From a chronological point of view, the ceramic products of Caucasian

Albania can be considered within the limits from the 4th century BC. to the 7th
century AD.

The most interesting material from a historical and artistic point of view,
which clearly demonstrates the artistic and plastic features of the ceramics of
Caucasian Albania, are zoomorphic vessels, reflecting not only the plastic skill of
Albanian ceramists, but also totemistic and animistic representations and cult rites
of ancient Albanians. Such vessels in the overwhelming majority come from
excavations of settlements and in the inventory of burials in the Mingachevir
region. Also, zoomorphic vessels were found during excavations of the Nyuydi
settlement and near Shamakhi.

Types of zoomorphic vessels:

1 - zoomorphic vessels in the form of various animals or birds. As a rule, such

vessels were used during ritual ceremonies, but it is not excluded that they were
used for domestic needs, as, in particular, vessels-aquarius. These vessels, made in
the form of a duck, a dove, a goose, a cow, a deer, a goat, and a number of other
animals, have a hole in their mouths for pouring liquid. A large number of
zoomorphic vessels were found in Mingachevir.

Example: Zoomorphic gray-clay vessel of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. in the

form of a tour, dating from the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. Noteworthy is the skillful
use of animal horns for constructive and decorative purposes. The inlet of the
vessel is located in the middle of the body of the animal, the horns of the tour are
beautifully and organically connected to the neck and then pass into a loop-shaped
handle. At the same time, it should be noted that the conventionality of the
manner of expression in this vessel certainly dominates the naturalistic
approach. It is also important to emphasize that the plastic beauty in this vessel
was achieved not due to any additional decoration motifs, but solely due to the
elegance of the constructive forms themselves, which testifies to the great
professional skill of the Albanian ceramists.

Also, in this subject, attention is drawn to the maximum use by the master of
the internal hollow space. The four legs of the goat are made extremely short. The
vessel has a solid, streamlined shape. All the main plastic elements here - the head,
horns, neck, body, legs-stands - smoothly flow into each other, as if outlined by
one continuous line. It is important to emphasize the organic nature of this object:
the functional, pictorial and decorative aspects are merged here into a single,
inseparable whole.

The widespread use of images of deer, rams, ducks, pigeons and others in
ceramics was associated with the deification by the ancient inhabitants of these
lands of animals and birds, whose images were embodied in ceramic vessels.
 2 - the vessels in which animal figures are placed over handles, rims and
plums.

This principle of arrangement of animal figures is associated with the beliefs

of the ancient Albanians in the protective functions of such vessels and the
sacralization of liquids in them. A striking example of this type is a gray-clay
vessel of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC., from Mingachevir, there are two stylized
figures of rams at the neck of jar and on the handles,.

The figures of rams are given in a highly stylized manner, their horns are
spectacularly twisted, which contributes to additional artistic expressiveness of the
entire product. This is also facilitated by the symmetry of the compositional
construction in the vessels of this typological group.

The image of a ram is one of the most typical for this type of vessels. So, in
another example, which is a red clay jug of the II-I centuries. BC, the upper ends of
the handles contain a stucco image of a ram's head: the eyes are shown by means
of tablet molds, the mouth is ajar, the nostrils are marked with a puncture.

At the beginning of the first millennium BC. on the territory of Caucasian

Albania, along with the head of a ram, ceramists also created images of such
animals as a monkey, a dog, a boar...

3 - a group of zoomorphic vessels is distinguished by the fact that plastic half-

figures and animal heads adjoin the walls of the vessels, while the vessels
themselves retain their original traditional shape. A feature of this group is that
zoomorphic figurines, as a rule, do not adjoin the rim of the vessel, as was the case
in the previous group, but are attached directly to the bodies of the jars. Out of
many other zoomorphic vessels, this one is a jug for storing liquid, as it lacks a
drain hole.

Example: Rhyton-shaped zoomorphic vessel: red colored zoomorphic vessel. A

bust plastic image of a deer adjoins the base of the vessel with a developed bell,
giving the entire composition of the vessel an original plasticity and vivid artistic
expression. The rhyton is made by hand. Its bell is covered with incised straight
and wavy lines that emphasize the verticality of the form. Most likely, the rhyton
had a cult and ritual purpose.
 It should be noted that the image of a deer occupies a significant place in the
"bestiary" of the Albanian masters, being one of the symbols of the solar deity.

Mingechevir. I century BC - I century AD

Rhyton - (ancient Greek ῥυτόν - drinking horn, from ancient Greek ῥέω -
flow) - a wide funnel-shaped vessel for drinking in the form of a lowered head of
an animal (dog, ram, goat, horse) or a person. The vessel was often used in sacred
rites of sacrifice or libation of wine in honor of one or another god.
Zoomorphic vessel in the form of an amphora: a grey-clay polished vessel in the
form of an amphora. The head of a unicorn adjoins the convex side of the vessel.
The body of the vessel does not have any decorative additions, however, the very
elegant form and constructive clarity of its form contribute to the high artistic level
of this product. Most likely, the vessel has a ritual significance.

Mingechevir. 4-3 cc. BC.

4 - vessels, the body of which can be decorated with a relief image of

animals, both in full and in abbreviated form. This was probably still connected
with ancient beliefs, according to which the image of the animal was intended to
protect the contents of the jars from "evil spirits".

Example: Zoomorphic vessel with a relief image of a snake: the grey clay
jug is distinguished by the constructive elegance of its shape. The body is
decorated with a relief image of a snake placed in the vertically central sector of
the vessel and encircling the jug along the entire radius.
 Probably, this principle of decorating vessels is associated with a protection
of the contents of the vessel from "evil spirits“.

Mingechevir. 4-3 cc.B.C.

Example:

The yellow-clay jug from Mingachevir (I c. B.C-I c. A.D). The tubular

spout is emphasized by a snake around it.

Example:
 A fragment of a dish found in Gabala and dating back to the 3rd-2nd
centuries B.C. There is an image of a snake on the ceramic shard, interpreted
realistically, in contrast to the stylized representation on many other ceramic
items.

It has already been noted above that the cult of the snake is one of the most
ancient in the history of mankind. It was quite popular in the territory of Caucasian
Albania. On many vessels, one can see the image of a snake, often crawling
towards the rim or enveloping the drain, executed either graphically or in relief.
Certainly, the cult of the snake has long been preserved in the minds of the ancient
Albanians and is reflected in many forms of arts and crafts, including ceramics.

In addition to snakes, rams, goats, various kinds of birds, hares and deer are
often found among the characters of zoomorphic motifs. In the second period, all
such images lose their independent significance, organically fitting into the overall
ceramic composition.
Example: Red clay vessel III - IV - centuries. AD from Mingachevir, made by
hand. A noteworthy element of the decorative design of this jug, namely, the relief
image of a deer.

Example: A red-clay vessel from Mingachevir dating back to the 1st-3rd

centuries AD. There are three stucco images of a hare, which are stylized up to
purely decorative expressiveness on the shoulder of this vertically elongated jug
with a handle.
 5 - vessels with stylized relief images of animals. The stucco images of
animals are distinguished by a pronounced stylized character; they are located
above the handles and above, below and around the spouts. Sometimes such
vessels have paintings on the surface of the body, made with dark red paint.

Thus, the ornamentation of ceramic products is increasingly freed from ritual

and semantic meaning.

Along with zoomorphic vessels, as well as individual ceramic figurines of

various animals, among the samples found on the territory of ancient Azerbaijan of
the ancient period, there are ceramic samples that are either anthropomorphic
figures or vessels imitating a human figure or having individual elements of a
human image.

Example: An anthropomorphic vessel in the form of a female figure dating back to

the 1st-3rd centuries AD was discovered in the Khynysly village of the Shamakhi
region.
The village of Mollaisakly, Ismayilli.

Sheki, 1-3 centuries AD

 Sheki, 1-3 centuries AD
Flasks:

- horizontal position
-vertical position

A fairly large group in the ceramic production of Caucasian Albania is made up of

flasks - rectangular vessels with two vertical handles on the shoulders and a
vertically directed spout. These flasks were designed to be carried upright in a
case. Vessels of this group are distinguished by various decorations. As a rule, the
decoration of flasks is laconic and is mainly concentrated in the neck area. The
aesthetic expressiveness of the discovered objects lies precisely in the impeccable
execution of the form.
 3-1 cc.B.C. Mingechevir.

The yellow-clay vessel belongs to the category of rectangular flasks with two
vertically oriented handles on the shoulders and a vertical spout. These flasks were
designed to be carried upright in a case. Attention is drawn to the relief line
running vertically on the front axis of the vessel and also the rim emphasizing the
neck. Obviously, these lines, accompanied by small, evenly following one after
another notches, imitate the seam of the cover, which was usually put on a flask.

Nevertheless, in this typology of ceramic products from Caucasian Albania,

one can observe such interesting design techniques, such as imitation of a metal
texture by applying uniform pimply protrusions, evoking associations with iron
rivets.
 This vessel of 3-1 cc.B.C. is an interesting example of imitation of a metal
texture through the application of uniform pimply protrusions, evoking
associations with iron rivets. A similar decorative motif has been used on the
territory of Caucasian Albania since the 7th century. BC. and is found on products
of different functional orientation.

Red Clay jug. II-I centuries B.C.

Babazanly quarry, Salyan. The ribbed/fluted surface imitates work on metal.

Mingechevir and Gabala (Yaloylutepe culture) were the largest sources

of archaeological material, where a huge number of burials of various types and
different periods were discovered, accompanied by various types and samples of
ceramic production. The pottery found here is distinguished by its pronounced
originality, the richness of methods, techniques and motifs for decorating vessels,
as well as a wide range of plastic forms. In particular, rich material dating back to
the 4th c. BC. -I century AD, was discovered in the area of Yaloylutepe (in the
vicinity of Gabala).

Here the graceful vases on one or three legs, jugs with a neck in the form of a
three-lobed corolla (oynochoya type), deep bowls have been discovered. Also, in
the artistic ceramics of Caucasian Albania of the heyday, there are vessels that are
characterized by a bright originality of their plastic compositions and undoubtedly
have a high artistic and decorative value. They are characterized by long and deep
beak-shaped plumes, spherical-biconical body shapes, side handles and yellow-
pink color of the clay. First discovered in Yaloylutepe, these vessels are called
Yaloylutepe, although the area of distribution of such samples is very extensive,
and, in addition to Gabala, includes Mingechevir, Nija, Deymeder, and the Mil
steppe.

Ceramic products of the Yaloylutepe type are found in all the main cultural
centers of Caucasian Albania. A semicircular corolla with a beak-shaped drain of
different configurations appears in these vessels as the most bright constructive-
decorative detail. Also, the vessels of this group are characterized by ceramic
filters located under the drain.

Thus, in this group one can see the jugs with a spherical body and beak -
shaped drain with a pronounced vertical orientation. The numerous group is
composed of jugs with a multi-petal short beak-shaped drain, cone-shaped body
and handle that connects the body of the vessel with an edge of mouth. Often such
jugs are installed on a vertical leg-stand. Regularly encountered elements of the
decoration of these vessels are plastic button and relief cord-lines, encircling a
high neck. A peculiar samples of this group vessels are jugs with a triple beak -
shaped drain of a pronounced horizontal orientation.
 Such forms of drains are very practical and carry a pronounced functional
meaning. However, it is also obvious that these structural elements of ceramic
products are an important factor of decorative expressiveness of them.

Various scholars associate the purpose of this kind of vessels with the cult of
agriculture. However, it is more likely that such vessels were used for rites of the
cult of grape juice.

The vessels of the Yaloylutepe “vase” type

There is a large group of ceramic products from Caucasian Albania, which,

due to their utilitarian purpose, can be called “vases”. They certainly deserve
attention due to the specific nature of the plastics, which at the same time makes up
the emphatically aesthetic, highly artistic quality of these vessels. According to
their formal and functional features, vases are bowls of various sizes and
configurations.

The body is framed from below by an annular plane, and from above by a
tilted rim. This relief design gives the vase an original decorative character. The
body of the vase rests on three graceful legs, which, by their shape, also contribute
to the aesthetic expressiveness of the product. Other types of vases have one leg
with a cylindrical shape with a wide base or three legs with a conical outline.
 It is important to note that ceramic products of this type, found in
Yaloylutepe, seem to be of the highest quality and characteristic. As a rule, there
are no decorative elements here, and an exclusively plastic solution is the main
means of artistic expression. Also, it is appropriate to emphasize that the
Yaloylutepe culture as a whole is dated to the period from the 4th century BC. to
the 3rd century AD, so that it undoubtedly reflects the main trends in the ceramic
production of Caucasian Albania in the mature period and can rightly be associated
with the main characteristic of Albanian ceramics. This is confirmed by numerous
similar samples found in other settlements of the Albanian kingdom - Mingachevir,
Shamakhi, Agsu, and a number of other points.