About Us

Hamlet Petrosyan is a specialist in Armenian archaeology and cultural anthropology with focus on
traditional world-perception, identity and behavior, monuments and iconography.
He is a Doctor of Historical Sciences and works at the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, National
Academy of Sciences of Armenia. He also teaches courses on medieval culture, culture of khachkars and
Armenian Identity at Yerevan State University.
He has more than 100 publications, including
- Wine in Traditional Armenian Culture (co-authors), Yerevan, 2005 (in Armenian and English),
- Armenian Folk Arts, Culture and Identity (co-authors), Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana Univ. Press,
2001,
- Wonders of Armenia (co-authors), Yerevan, 2000 (in Armenian),
- Garni in 9-14th Centuries, Yerevan, 1988, (in Armenian),
- The Ideology and Iconcography of Cross in Early Medival Armenia Armrnian Studies Today and
Development Perspectives, Yerevan, 2004, p. 587-604 (In Armenian).
- The Iconography of Jugha s Khachkars - Patma-Banasirakan Handes, 2004, 1, p. 63-80,
- "Armenia Paradise Lost": On Sources of Formation of an Image of Armenian Identity In: Problems of
Identity, Yerevan, 2002, p. 152-165 (in Armenian).
His book Khachkar. Origins, Functions, Iconography and Semanrtics now is in printing process.
(hamletpetrosyan@khachkar.am)

Web design - Armen Petrosyan (armen@armeniadiaspora.com)

Destroyed khachkars in Azerbaijan

For decades, the government of Azerbaijan has pursued a policy of eradication and misappropriation
toward khachkars. Beginning in the 1980s, some Azerbaijani researchers made the khachkars which were
located in historically Armenian lands and which had been misappropriated to Soviet Azerbaijan and
surrounding regions the subject of their "research". Following the unfortunate theory of Buniatov, the
excurses of Azeris had only one goal: to proclaim the entire heritage of khachkars as
Albanian/Azerbaijani. At the same time, the Azerbaijani government undertook a wide program of
eradication of khachkars. Some details of this horrible program implemented during Soviet years became
obvious only after the liberation of Armenian territories. The khachkars were broken into pieces or were
transformed to stones for construction and were used in the construction of individual houses and public
buildings, particularly in the walls of public schools.
Today, the government of independent Azerbaijan has enlarged this policy and has made this politics of
Soviet years more impudent. This time, the victim of barbarism became the biggest known khachkar
field, known as Jugha, which is under Azeri subordination. At the end of 2002, as a result of the barbarism
organized by the Azerbaijani government, the last 3000 khachkars were eradicated in Jugha. In
December 2005, Azerbaijani military formations broke into pieces with heavy hammers the remaining
fragments of khachkars in the Jugha cemetery, moved them, and dumped the fragments into the Araks
River. This crime was videotaped from the Iranian border and has been spread all over the world.

Click for Gallery

Endangered khachkars in Turkey

A number of khachkars, which were created in historic Armenia and surrounding regions, in modern times
have become the possession of Turkey, Azerbaijan, and partly Georgia and Iran. As a result of systematic
eradication of khachkars in Turkey today only a few examples survive. Unfortunately these single
examples are not cataloged and properly photographed. Thus, it is difficult to follow up with the current
situation.

Endangered Khachkars in Armenia and Artsakh

It is particularly tragic that khachkars are also endangered in Armenia and Artsakh. They are
disappearing, being damaged or moved.
Most endangered are the old khachkar fields located near today's graveyards, where khachkars are being
eradicated for the creation of new burial space. The 'crown of thorns' belongs to the khachkar field in
Arinch near Yerevan. The situation is threatening in Noratus as well, where new burials are encroaching
upon the khachkar field from at least three sides. The old graveyard of Areni is in almost the same
situation.
The movement of khachkars voluntarily by different individuals is a widespread practice. In some cases
this is done to allegedly create a new holy place, for example, the case of Karmir Dalakner of
Gegharquniq region where the khachkar was brought from Karvachar. Another case of moved khachkars
is due to the decoration of new offices and especially entertainment establishments, as for example in
the Vank village in Karabakh. The third and the most condemning practice is when khachkars are merely
disappearing to decorate individual yards and houses.
Khachkars are being damaged also by believers, worshipers and casual visitors, who light candles on
them or write their names on them or engage in rituals that are damaging the carvings.
The Origins of Khachkar The ideology and iconography of the cross in early Christian Armenia.
First crosses and cross compositions. The creation of the main patterns of composition and
architecture of the khachkar. The ideology and iconography of the cross in early Christian Armenia.

To understand the origins of the composition of the khachkar it is necessary to pay special attention to
ideological-religious and cultural processes that were taking place in the 4 th-7th centuries in Armenia.
As a result of these processes, together with a number of complexes of national identity like Armenian
alphabet, book, etc., the principles of the organization of sacred space, the national worship of the cross,
and the iconography were shaped. The development of these complexes and the specific historic-cultural
environment led to the emergence of khachkars. According to the evidence presented in the "History" by
Agatangeghos, which is a presentation of the proclamation of Christianity as a state religion in Armenia in
the beginning of the 4th century, in process of spreading of Christianity an important role had played the
temple and an open-air stele. The Vision of Grigor the Enlightener, which is a part of mentioned "History",
states, that the first cross-bearing steles and temple appeared in the center of the capital of Armenia as a
result of a miracle. If the temple was the symbol of the surrounding holy territory, to a certain extent it
was in opposition to secular, non-holy territory. Thus the cross-bearing stele aimed to give holiness to the
open air, to secular territory, easing the conflict between the holy and non-holy, and eventually between
the believer and the non-believer. It was thought in medieval Armenia that the Armenian letters were
depicted to Mesrop Mashtots (father of the Armenian alphabet) by a miracle. Thus, the stele, the temple,
and the letters, were given to Armenians through a miracle and represent the three main, equal directions
and means in the process of spreading and strengthening of the new belief. The first stele in the vision of
Grigor the Enlightener comes as a result of the victory over pagan forces, the remaining three as the
result of the martyring of the virgins. Hence, in this vision, which has a keynote nature for Armenian
Christianity and the Armenian church, demonstrates the victorious (first stele) and savior (the steles of
the virgins) symbolization of the cross, which fully corresponds to the symbolism of the cross created in
the 4th century.

There are no details on the form or appearance of the cross in early Armenian written sources. Its form
and general appearance and its symbolic meaning, are issues, which can be addressed by a comparative
analysis of the general symbolism of the cross in the first centuries of Christianity, by a restoration of the
graphics and corresponding materials. In the New Testament we see the first attempts to interpret the
crucifixion as salvation and victory, which constitutes the general wisdom of Christology.

But these are indefinite references, which do not rule out the clear practice of the holy cross and do not
describe its outer appearance. In the antique world the death penalty through crucifixion was considered
to be the most humiliating form of capital punishment. This perception of the cross as a tool for a
shameful death was shared by the early Christians as well, and it took some time for this to be overcome.
We should consider as accepted the opinion that until Constantine The Great the cross had been
considered a tool for murder and disrespect, and was used rarely as a symbol of Christianity and as
complementary for the other symbols. It is characteristic that in 4th-5th centuries, among the most
important instructions by the first creators of the cross philosophy was that there was no need anymore to
be ashamed of accepting and worshiping the cross. Due to wide-ranging preaching, the cross quickly was
transformed into an exclusive sign of Christian identity, by which started, proceeded and finished every
thought, ritual and beginning. In the popularization of cross worship and the emergence of the khachkar,
an important role was also played by the particular kind of cross worshiping of the Armenian Church.
Another basis for the emergence of the khachkar and for the development of popular reverence toward it
was the worshiping of a free standing outdoor rock, a mountain and eventually simply a stone.
First crosses and cross compositions.
In early Christian art, the origins of the depiction of the cross is thought to be the vision of Constantine
the Great, which provided the basis for making official the monogrammatic cross (chi-ro), and following it,
the equal-winged or, so-called Greek cross. The decorated and tree of life philosophy and iconography of
a cross is connected with Constantine the Great's mother Helena, who found the wood of the cross, from
which originates the proportionately stringed (with longer lower wing) or Latin cross
The oldest documented crosses in Christian Armenia were the monogrammatic crosses. These are crosses
encircled in a wreath, surrounded by doves that represented the souls of the believers, and situated in a
garden-paradise environment. But in early medieval Armenian art, encircled crosses with radial enlarged
wings are more characteristic. These became widespread both as a type of free-standing cross-bearing
stele, and as an architectural detail on different sacred structures. Starting already from the earliest
examples, the solar-illuminated design was paralleled with an essentially vegetative one, which became
one of the bases for the further development and eventual emergence of the cross composition.
The cross with pulled proportions (the two elements of the cross the horizontal and vertical pillars, do not
intersect in the middle, but rather the horizontal element transects the vertical element at a point above
the center), which spread a bit later than the equal-winged cross (beginning from the mid-fifth century)
had better prospects of development in Armenia. These crosses were depicted on hills, on stairs, placed
on a ball, decorated with palmettes and lilies. The wings and the crossing of the cross were accented with
jewels or buttons. The interpretation of these details allows us to come to the conclusion that the cross
with pulled proportions incorporated both the victorious and savior philosophy, and was presented in the
center of the universe as a tree of life on the paradise mountain, referencing the crucifixion and showing
the future.
Many examples of standing cross-bearing steles from the 4th - 7th century have survived to the present.
These steles can be divided into 6 groups:
- Stele with carvings;
- Memorial columns;
- Memorial structures;
- Free-standing crosses;
- Stone crosses erected on altars;
- Crosses on a pole.
Steles, as a rule, were concluding with a stone cross with three-dimensional or free wings, attached on
pilasters, or on special cross-holders that were positioned on pilasters. Sometimes their bases, columns or
pilasters bear cross carvings or more sophisticated cross compositions. The three-dimensional cross, due
to a prolonged lower vertical wing, has a more extensive look, which aimed to present the Exalted cross of
Golgotha. The composition of the free crosses included the palmette ornament, which started from the
bottom of the cross and continued until the tips of the horizontal wings, with round holes or buttons on
the wings and a pair of buttons on the ends of the wings. The holes or buttons originated from jewelry,
where the small holes were intended to bear precious stones or to place holy relics under a glass, and the
buttons were made from precious stones. The three-dimensional crosses that originate from northern
Armenia are decorated with delicate carvings of Christ and saints, lily flowers, grain-like ornaments and
rosette bouquets.
The crosses on the pole can be divided into two types: movable and immovable. In the first case they
have a large base, short stick, sometimes even a pilaster under the cross, and in some cases the cross-
bearing circle is based on two sticks. Probably precisely such crosses on a pole were considered to be the
crosses that were erected by Gregory the Illuminator and King Trdat. A large part of these crosses was
made from wood, and some examples or some of their parts from iron.
Together with three-dimensional crosses, the cross compositions carved on church structures, steles and
memorials, were widespread. These compositions provide an opportunity to restore the process of
philosophical and iconographical popularization of the cross in Armenia. Early Christian propaganda in
Armenia placed great importance as much in the oral and written word, as in the image. The latter, in the
first place, was intended to target uneducated peasants and aimed to play the same role for them as the
book played for educated people. Another goal of the compositions was the presentation of God's history
and order through different carving themes, images and symbols. But obvious issues were emerging with
the presentation of the basic idea of Christianity - Christ's salvational crucifixion. It was difficult to present
to the new believer a crucified but still powerful god. To popularize the idea of salvation through
crucifixion, the Armenian Church chose to emphasize not the image (Christ) but the sign (cross). Despite
on this the sign alone could not tell much about the idea. Detailed analysis shows that to make the
prospect of salvational crucifixion understandable, Armenian priests used allegories which were familiar to
agricultural societies: just as the grape becomes an "immortal" liquid after squeezing, Christ poured his
blood on the cross for the sins of the humanity; just as the birds and animals enjoy themselves in the
vineyards, the true believers will enjoy heaven that will come as a result of the crucifixion of Christ. Or,
Christ's dogma itself is like a vineyard, and Christ is like a grape, and with learning that dogma opens the
road to heaven. Thus, early cross compositions took on garden-grape iconography: the cross is pictured as
a new tree of life, which either grows in a vineyard, or gives beginning to the vine, or bears Christ, his
teaching and the vine symbolizing the followers. This heaven-garden-grape understanding of the cross
became the basis of the khachkar composition.
The creation of the main patterns of composition and architecture of the khachkar.
In comparison to the early medieval steles that consisted of a base, column, pilaster and three-
dimensional cross, the first khachkars, as a rule, were plain, rectangular, intact stones. It is impossible to
separate any one type among the early medieval steles that could serve as a prototype for the khachkar
in its three-dimensional solution. The early medieval cross compositions having either an encircled equal-
winged cross or the "pulled proportion" cross, respectively were becoming almost circular or rectangular.
Due to the tree of life connotations of the cross, there was more potential for spreading the latter, "pulled
proportions" form. The formation of the three-dimensional khachkar begins with selection of natural,
unworked piece of rock, old stele, rounded or egg-shaped stone or construction block, on whose surface
the stone composition can be easily placed. It ends with an arced or rectangular block. In the sense of
composition, the first khachkars represent not just cross bearing, but cross composition bearing steles.
Thus, the emergence of the khachkar can be described not simply as a carving of the sign of the cross on
the western side of a free-standing stele, but the process of choosing the appropriate free-standing steles
for the variety of types of cross-compositions. Thus, in the process of the formation of the khachkar's
stele, the type of cross composition, rather than the type of stele, is playing a key role. The typology and
Chronology of Khachkar First Khachkars of the 9-10th centuries.
Although existing data suggests that the cross and cross composition became popular beginning in
the 7th century, the first cross-stones or khachkars appeared only in 9th century. A thorough
examination of the circumstances that account for this delay suggests that the formation and
preliminary development of khachkars should be considered not only from an artistic standpoint,
but rather as the totality of political-confessional and artistic processes then underway. Under the
circumstances of centuries under consideration, when Armenia was under the heavy Arabic political
yoke and broad religious intolerance, the development of new types of Christian monuments,
especially open air monuments, was almost impossible. Khachkars appeared in parallel with the
fading of Arabic domination, becoming the result of the ongoing political-religious development.
These centuries represent a phase of the formation of the stele, the complexity of composition and
shaping of inscriptional text of khachkars. The formational process of the first khachkars begins
with a depiction of medieval compositions and steles on a flat surface, and ends with the foundation
of a new composition, depicted inside of an arch-like or rectangular niche. The new composition is
presented with a cross, leaning on a round rosette and palmette, with bunches of grape or palmettes
coming down from the upper wing of the cross or the upper angles of the niche toward the crossing
point of the wings of the cross, and the placement of different carvings of birds in different sections
of the stone. The cross also passes through a certain path of development - from di-lobed to tri-
lobed endings, from uncarved, smooth wings of the cross to triangular slits and palmette and lily
decorations. In terms of style the most characteristic for 9th-10th century khachkars is the
monumentality of the carvings, which is expressed with clear division of composition and
background, which technically was achieved by moving off deep layers around the separate relief.
The whole composition or separate parts of it, which is situated on the smooth and uncarved
background, gives the impression that the carvings belong not to the same stone but are placed on it
artificially. The overall perception of the composition is preserved first of all due to underlined
protuberance. In early khachkars the weaved ornaments are lacking. Certain details of the
composition are not weaved, but rather are "touching" each other as more visual or indissoluble
method to bind these details is not discovered yet. The lack of this particular skill in the sphere of
carving was overcome almost one hundred years later. Compositions that were balanced and carved
in detail appeared only at the end of 10th century and in the 11th century. Another characteristic
feature that appeared with the first examples of the khachkar was the inscription. The examination
of early inscriptions shows that the great majority of the first khachkars had been erected by
influential political and religious leaders of the country and had a general or communal usage.
The typology and Chronology of Khachkar Khachkars of the 11th century. At the end of the 10th
and in the beginning of the 11th centuries the pure khachkar style was formed. This means that
monumentality is accompanied with ornamentality. In the first stage of this process the strict
separation of the carving from the background is still present, but the sculpture becomes more
decorated with vegetative and geometrical ornaments (Aruch, Sanahin, Tsovak, Marmashen, Verin
Chambarak). The circular tri-lobed buttons at the ends of the wings of the cross in some examples
becomes three-buds, thus focusing on the perspective of vegetation. In the 11th century some
compositions present the cross inserted in the architectural arch (Tsaghats Kar, Havuts Tar, Aruch,
Byurakan, Ani, Ashtarak, Karmir Vank). In some compositions the palmette ornament under the
cross becomes larger, and as a result the cross becomes nearly equal-winged (as opposed to pulled
proportioned). In the 11th century the overall palm ornamentation is typical. Namely, wings of the
cross -designed as palm branch, palmette ornaments are growing from the top and bottom of the
cross. Banding and interlacing horizontal and vertical palm branches speak to the fact that not only
weaving and jewelry patterns are imitated, but also the bouquets, diadems and cross-bunches which
are sewn and used for ritual purposes.

The typology and Chronology of Khachkar Khachkars of the 12-14th centuries

At the end of the 10th and in the beginning of the 11th centuries the pure khachkar style was
formed. This means that monumentality is accompanied with ornamentality. In the first stage of this
process the strict separation of the carving from the background is still present, but the sculpture
becomes more decorated with vegetative and geometrical ornaments (Aruch, Sanahin, Tsovak,
Marmashen, Verin Chambarak). The circular tri-lobed buttons at the ends of the wings of the cross
in some examples becomes three-buds, thus focusing on the perspective of vegetation. In the 11th
century some compositions present the cross inserted in the architectural arch (Tsaghats Kar, Havuts
Tar, Aruch, Byurakan, Ani, Ashtarak, Karmir Vank). some compositions the palmette ornament
under the cross becomes larger, and as a result the cross becomes nearly equal-winged (as opposed
to pulled proportioned). In the 11th century the overall palm ornamentation is typical. Namely,
wings of the cross -designed as palm branch, palmette ornaments are growing from the top and
bottom of the cross. Banding and interlacing horizontal and vertical palm branches speak to the fact
that not only weaving and jewelry patterns are imitated, but also the bouquets, diadems and cross-
bunches which are sewn and used for ritual purposes.

The typology and Chronology of Khachkar Khachkars of the 15-17th centuries

Upon the political and economical decline of the country in the 14th century, khachkar culture
diminished as well. Khachkars lost their functional and compositional diversity and were
transformed to mere stele over a grave. Hundreds of examples of khachkar art from 15-17th
centuries appear in Gegharqunik, Tsghuk (Sisian), Kotayk, Vayoc Dzor. Jugha represents a unique
school, with khachkars that one time reached thousands in number. The two main directions that
emerged in 15th century, in essence, found their roots in the two classic styles of 12-13th centuries:
full decoration of the surface and, on the contrary, the undecorated depth. Already in the second
quarter of the 15th century a steady compositional scheme is forming, which becomes dominant and
survives until 1720s. Decoration wise, it contrasts multi-crosses and full decoration of the stele,
simple netting, rectangular segments and multi-winged stars. The carving becomes superficial;
relief lines widen and become plain, which gives a certain smoothness to whole composition. The
"return" of biblical themes and the appearance of new themes is characteristic. The free
interpretation of these themes and the import of folk-individualistic elements into canonical
compositions make these khachkars a rich source for folk perceptions. The reinstatement of several
themes and decorative motives after nearly two and half centuries, although with other types of
decorative style, can be explained by the khachkars practical feature, since at this time they were
presented exclusively to save of souls of the dead.

The typology and Chronology of Khachkar Khachkars of Jugha

The khachkars of Jugha represent the khachkar culture of the 15th-17th centirues. These khachkars
with their solution to the problems of spatial capacity, their iconographical-stylistic style and their
semantic meaning are very rare phenomenon. Due to Jugha s exceptional cultural-economic and
political location, its khackars acquire to a certain extent new, external design features and new
semantic elements which call for a comparison of Armenian and Muslim art, European and the Far
Eastern arts, even though these khackars have at their core the classical traditions of Armenian
khachkar culture. The unprecedented development of khachkar art in Jugha, a place which, prior to
this period of time, had not been noticed as a location for the development of khachkar art, was a
result of economic-cultural development of the 15th-16th centuries, due to the transit silk trade,
which had been tragically interrupted by the order of the Persian Shah Abas I to forcefully organize,
move and burn Jugha in 1605. By the end of 20th century, only 3,000 khachkars remained from the
approximately 10,000 khachkars that were in Jugha at the end of the17th century. As a result of
vandalism organized by the Azerbaijani government, the last three thousand khachkars of Jugha
were destroyed at the end of 2002. On December 2005, military units of Azerbaijan with heavy
hammers cut into pieces the last remnants of the khachkars of Jugha and, moving the remnants by
cars, dumped them into the Arax River. This crime was filmed from the Persian border and the film
was spread all over the world. The actions of the Azerbaijani government were condemned by the
European parliament. In the khachkars of Jugha, the proportions of the stele are different (the length
exceeds the width by 3-4 times). The steles do not narrow, they do not have pedestals, and they are
sunk into the ground. The cornice is architecturally weakly expressed, the forward pediment is
missing, and instead the arrow-shaped niche is more architectural than ornamental.
The proportions of stele dictate a new separation feature: the central cross is exchanged with two
parallel rows of crosses, which weakens the structural integrity of the composition and enhances the
enlargement of decoration. The composition consists of four rectilinear parts: the cornice, the altar
(or altars), rosette, the inscription or the image carving. The details have identical, standard subjects
and technical detailing. The evangelical themes are presented: The Nativity, Madonna and Child,
The Last Judgment, The Deisus. In some compositions the deceased are depicted: on a horseback
and with crosses in their hands, and more rarely, around the feast table. An image with the body of a
lion with a human face (a so-called sphinx) is widespread, and the detailed examination shows its
relations with the just image of Christ.

Erection and Functions of Khachkar

The process of creating a khachkar begins with choosing a type of stone (mine). Usually, local
materials were used, and priority was given to yellow-reddish tuff. The ultimate size of the stele is
considered important. In the first step, the stele was rendered into certain proportions, such that the
narrow sides and surfaces of the future monument were squared and polished. The reverse side, if it
wasn t intended for inscription, was only roughly squared. In the beginning, the components of the
future composition were sketched on the gound surface. The creation of complicated and
proportional geometric carvings presumes precise measuring with a ruler and compass. Also,
different stencils were used. In some cases, carving without sketching was also common. Carving
was been done by means of a chisel, a die, sharp pens, and hammers. The main technique of carving
was dual crossing, in which two corners of future shape were sketched by two parallel lines and
were carved to the imaginary central line. The carvings were ground by fine sand. The small breaks
and unsmooth parts that were formed during the carving process were later eliminated by plaster of
clay or lime, and then were painted. Special care was required during the transportation and
positioning of the stele, which is suggested by the "technical" projections and holes (at the bottom).
Examination of several khachkar in situ positions suggests that khachkars were put in place with the
help of ropes. In order to erect the khachkar a tail-jut had been inserted into the specially created
hole in the pedestal and was strengthened by small stones and mortar. In the process of connection
of the tail to the pedestal or the cornice to the stele stone, wooden and iron wedges were also used.

Khachkar as a Saint

The naming of a khachkar after a saint: Holy Godmother, St. Sargis, Gevorg, Poghos, Petros,
Stephanos, Hovhannes, Grigor, Qristapor, etc. was a widespread phenomenon. Sometimes the
image of the saint was depicted on the khachkar. One of the explanations for this practice is that the
person erecting the khachkar was giving his/her namesake Saint's name to the monument. From this
kind of khachkars the mediation of both the cross and the saint was expected. The named khachkars
bore the features of the cross and the relevant saint. For example, Holy Godmother khachkars
granted happiness to families and mothers, St. Gevorg khachkars granted strength and courage to
soldiers, etc.

The motivations behind khachkar erection An examination of hundreds of khachkar inscriptions

testifies to the fact that that there were countless motivations to erect a khachkar. Any believer with
any purpose that did not contradict prevailing Christian perceptions of morality could erect a
khachkar. The motive included in itself almost all activities of Medieval Armenian life - with its
joyous and tragic moments. The spiritual or socially important motives were more central. Also
placing a khachkar for individual-personal purposes was widely accepted and practiced. There are
over fifty documented motivations of khachkar placement. These motivations can be grouped in the
following categories: a. Secular and spiritual construction (construction, renovation or foundation of
a fortress, tower, bridge, guest house, spring, water reservoir, church, chapel, narthex, etc.); b.
Economic-administrative and communal activities (planting of a garden, foundation of land for
cultivation, regulation of water usage, demarcation and ratification of borders, foundation of a
settlement, signage of orders, signage of agreements, nomination to an official position, ratification
of donations, etc.); c. War issues (military victory, participation in a war, losses, missing military
personnel); d. Family-personal life (various situations, tragedies, death, etc.); e. Religious-mystic
events (vision, change of religion, etc.).

The ritual of khachkar placement The parallel examination of khachkar inscriptions with religious-
ritualistic texts reveals that there was a specific religious ceremony associated with the placement of
a khachkar, which resulted in the blessing of the khachkar (prayer, reading, make the sign of the
cross) and anoint ("cleaning" with chrism or water and wine). The basis of the ritual is the Christian
perception that an inanimate subject cannot have any power if God is not living in it. Evidence
indicates that the right to place a khachkar could be acquired upon payment of a certain fee. It is
probable that the ritual expression of such a "contract" was the anointing itself. Particularly
interesting is the practice of anointing with wine: in the case of those khachkar on which the "wine-
providing" grape rods and pomegranate are required elements of the composition, this practice was
viewed as an anointing with the blood of God. Numerous khachkar inscriptions present khachkars
as anointed by holy blood. After being blessed and anointed, the khachkar already possessed holy
powers, and from that moment forward its holy function could begin, as mentions an inscription on
one of the khachkars in Garni from 1216 which states "Lord Jesus on this".

The main objectives of Khachkar erection and the features of khachkar

It can be stated that the main stimuli of khachkar erection was an anticipation or a goal. Without this
goal, which can be described as a holy attribute directed towards the future, the khachkar would
become a mere historical chronicle that would lack any possibility of involvement in life s routines.
Unlike the motivations of khachkar erection, the goals are very limited, and, in essence, revolve
around the main holy practices of the cross: help, protection, victory, long life, remembrance,
mediation toward salvation of the soul. It is this purposefulness of holy practices that fully
materializes the khachkar as an entity that is practically directed towards future and that contrasts
the meditative and rescuing powers of the cross, the memorial essence of the script and image, the
ritualistic practice of an altar as a place for prayer, the tradition of stone-stele as a symbol of
perpetuity-eternity The classic khachkar was an individualistic monument. This is one of the main
differences between khachkars and other religious-spiritual structures, and this allowed for its mass
distribution. At the same time, by virtue of its open air placement and by the invitation to worship
the cross, each khachkar was open to any believer. It can be stated that one of the primary features
of the khachkar is precisely the assurance of a direct (unmediated) connection of believers with the
holy power and its symbol. Study shows that the holy feature of the cross was initially directed
towards future, sometimes the near future but mainly the distant future. The cross appeared as a
custodian and transmitter, a mediator of remembrance to God, leading and showing the way toward
the Second Advent. Thus, the core feature of the cross as mediator between people and God is
obvious. The practice of mediation is also realized by the church, saints, various remnants, and the
book. But in the list of these mediators, in Armenian Christianity, the cross had been allocated a
special position. As a result of the popularization of the cross, the khachkar became the saint that
was most approachable and the least demanding in terms of rituals and conventionality. Each
khachkar by its very presence, was an indicator, defender, and consecrator of the terrain: this
explains the placement of khachkars on crossroads and on the edges of roads, on borders and on
hills dominating the terrain, on the rocks and near springs. Thus khachkars also took on purposes
that were far from the goals entailed in their erection. Over the course of time and due to various
historical and cultural circumstances, the original goal of the khachkar (intended by the erector)
could have been forgotten and new goals were ascribed, which helps to explain the purely folk
connotations of khachkar and its later uses. Within this folk "classification" the most famous
khachkars were those intended for the healing of various sicknesses, especially those that were
called "all-savior" , in this case meaning that they could be appealed to during any sickness. In the
list of "specialized" khachkars the blue crosses", "cough crosses", had wide distribution. The other
group of khachkars that took on an ascribed feature consisted of the so-called "anger s crosses", the
main feature of which was the prevention of natural disasters. Contemporary ethnographical
researches gives a basis to suppose that some khachkars were ascribed the feature of measuring fear.
The ascribed features, unlike the anticipated features considered upon the erection of a khachkar,
are more single-lined and materialistic. In such instances, the khachkar lost its spiritual and
individualistic features and was retaining only a communal or general connotation. In such cases,
the decorative composition of the khachkar could not have any other meaning but as a monument of
art.

The master

In the number of attested names of khachkar masters, khachkars are second only to manuscripts.
Prior to the 15th century, masters inscribed their names in concealed places and sometimes hid their
names within the decor. In the 15-17th centuries, on the contrary, the names of masters were placed
in central sections of the composition. The patrons were also interested in the placement of the
names of masters, for this could signal the amount of their efforts, since hiring a famous master
involved serious spending. The first reference to a khachkar master is from the 9th century.
References become bigger in number in the 13th and 16-17th centuries, which corresponds to the
period of the development of khachkars. The masters referred to themselves as sketchers, workers,
compilers, inventors, decorators, painters, sculptors, masters, etc. Khachkar creation was a multi-
dimensional profession  lying in between architecture and sculpture, given that the creation of each
khachkar required not only knowledge and skills of sketching and carving, but also skills in
sculpting, architecture, construction, etc. Some famous masters (Vetsik, Khachinek Anetsi, Siranes,
Momik) combined all these professions. Evidence is making it possible to infer that khachkar
masters, just like other workers in construction, were travelers, and the most famous masters were
receiving orders from all over the country. The master often worked with an apprentice; there were
also groups of artisans. Most of the masters were secular, but the number of religious masters is not
small. There were even bishop-masters; this confirms that the making of a khachkar was a
prestigious profession.

The main components of the khachkar composition The cross, niche and illuminate symbols

In the khachkar composition the cross appears as its main component, and the remaining elements
assume ideological value through their position and connection to the cross. From the early middle
ages, the khachkar composition acquired for the first time the cross with off-centered arrangement
(as opposed to chi-ro), filed with vegetative components cross. In the 9-10th centuries the cross
wings are capped with double buttons, then receive a form of chamomile, rosette, lily or palm decor.
In the process of cross formation the twin buttons become trebled. In the 11th century, together with
the fact that the composition and the cross becomes netted, the middle button of trilobed ends of the
cross stretches and acquires the form of flower bud or symmetric decor - giving a blossoming,
vegetative appearance to the cross. This remains the main type of the central cross up to 18th
century. The crossing point is presented as a source of light and becomes a point of emphasize by
means of a gem. But the depiction of the "illuminated cross" was "shadowed" by the presentation of
the cross as a tree of life, and only had the single expression emphasizing the solar-illuminating
advent of the cross and Christ. Khachkar compositions also frequently appear with crosses placed
on the cornice, in the section of rosette, and the edges of the belt. The cross is one of the more
movable elements of the composition. One of the principal differences of the khachkar composition
from the early medieval cross compositions is the fact that the khachkar encloses the cross into a
niche - visibly indicating its worshiped and holy status. The further "altarization" of the cross in
11th century led to the emergence of the walled khachkars, by which the niche received also an
architectural solution emphasizing, even more, the worshiping element. Beginning in the 11th
century, the cross and the niche are mutually corresponding. As a result, in several khachkars of the
12-14th centuries the niche through its contours tries to mirror the outline of the cross, becoming
like a container of the cross. Since the early khachkars lacked cornices, the niche in these
compositions not only presented the ritualistic character of the cross to the believer (e.g.
worshiping), but also symbolized the terrestrial sphere, and the abstract-universal measure of the
cross. Later, with the increase of the perception of the cross as a holy mediator, the cornice takes on
the connotation of the terrestrial sphere, and the niche, just like the cross, becomes a sort of middle
ring between the cornice and rosette (between the top and bottom parts as a whole). The illuminate
symbols in the khachkar composition were placed at the top of the niche or on the cornice, and
referred to two main themes: the crucifixion and Second Advent of the cross. The sun and the moon
were depicted, and sometimes even a star. The sun is depicted more decorated than the moon or the
star and sometimes the moon is portrayed in a form of crescent. In the "All-savior" khachkars, the
sun and the moon are given a human form, and are depicted mounted on an eagle and bull
respectively.

The main components of the khachkar composition The decors under the cross, the stairs, the
triangle, the rosette and palm decor

In khachkar compositions the central cross stands on a triangle-like element, or a stair-like element,
or on rectangular hills, or arches, church structures, rosettes, or halfrosettes. From the bottom part,
horizontal or vertical palm decors originate. Although the triangle is present in some examples
dating to the 9-10th centuries, later on it did not receive wide diffusion. Research suggests that the
triangle at the bottom of the cross had emphasized the special, holy status of the cross and implied
Golgotha. The rosette, as a characteristic element of the khachkar composition, appears already in
the early medieval ages, but assumed its steady position in khachkar composition only in the 11th
century. The rosette and the stairs became almost rejecting each other, which indicates that both
were in the symbolic field of Golgotha, although the stairs had an iconographical source - the stair-
like column bases and stylobates of the early middle ages. In the end of the 13th century and in the
14th century the rosette with relief cylinder was separated from the palm decor and by that from the
niche, and became a completely independent element. From the late 13th century the rosette
receives salience and is crowned with a ribbon-like border - resembling a shield or a tray. The
examination of the rosette and other associated decorative elements gives a basis to restore the
extensive symbolism as a table for ceremony (sometimes only tray-table), world, semen, the
paradise of Eden, Golgotha (sometimes depicted with the head of Adam), the paradise mountain of
Revelation, sun, star, universe. Beginning in the 11th century, the palm decor under the cross is
situated on the rosette and in later compositions appears in four developments: vegetative,
geometrical, snake and bird. In some compositions the cross stands on a coiled snake, symbolizing
victory, or it is surrounded on two sides by snakes and symbolizes the defense of the garden-
paradise (paradise-tree). The bird depiction of the palm decor on the one hand links to the palm tree
as the tree of life and on the other hand to the rosette, as the ancient perceptions of the sun. In some
compositions the palm decor is depicted as originating from the cross. Such a perception
corresponds to the Christian notions of the cross as an all bearing tree. The idea of the cross being
able to blossom served as a basis for the addition of small crosses on the two sides of the central
cross. In some compositions the trimmings of the palm decoration are transforming into cross-
bearing hands, which symbolize mortals waiting for the rescuing advent of the cross.
The main components of the khachkar composition The birds

The birds, just like the cross, are a movable element of the composition. In khachkar composition
the ideological indicator is not the bird itself but its position: the bottom position is mainly occupied
by water and terrestrial birds, the middle position is occupied by woodpecker-like birds, and the top
position by soaring birds. This Armenian variation of a common model of the world is one of the
vividly represented features of the khachkar, when the top, the middle and the bottom are depicted
through the hierarchy of the birds. Despite this, khachkars on which birds occupy the top position of
the composition or the cornice are greater in numbers. These consist of twin partridges facing one
another, doves or peacocks (drinking from the chalice, pecking the grape rods and bushes), which
depicts the celestial-holy sphere, celestial garden, the immortality of souls, which can be reached
through the mediation of the cross.

The main components of the khachkar composition The birds

The birds, just like the cross, are a movable element of the composition. In khachkar composition
the ideological indicator is not the bird itself but its position: the bottom position is mainly occupied
by water and terrestrial birds, the middle position is occupied by woodpecker-like birds, and the top
position by soaring birds. This Armenian variation of a common model of the world is one of the
vividly represented features of the khachkar, when the top, the middle and the bottom are depicted
through the hierarchy of the birds. Despite this, khachkars on which birds occupy the top position of
the composition or the cornice are greater in numbers. These consist of twin partridges facing one
another, doves or peacocks (drinking from the chalice, pecking the grape rods and bushes), which
depicts the celestial-holy sphere, celestial garden, the immortality of souls, which can be reached
through the mediation of the cross.

The main components of the khachkar composition The Cornice

Further developments of the khachkar led to a point when, at the beginning of the 11th century, the
upper part of the khachkar began to be separated, first through carving and then architecturally. The
cornice received a domelike volume and was crowned by a protruding fronton. Study shows that in
the process of the appearance of the cornice, besides its technical role, the widespread
popularization of the perception of the cross as a common mediator also took on an important role.
The lower part of a cross with rosette, various characters (including also the carvings of mortals)
appeared in the role of the bottom ring and the cornice - in the role of the celestial sphere. In 12-
14th centuries the cornice emerges with vegetative-garden iconography, representing what is
anticipated by the mediation of the cross. The second variant of the iconography consists of themes
and characters connected to salvation: The Annunciation, The Nativity, The Crucifixion, the advent
of the cross and Christ, Last Judgment, Deisus, angels and various saints, funeral liturgy, etc.
Beginning in the 15th century, mortals asking "in person" for salvation of their souls from Jesus
Christ, are included in the themes of the cornice.

The main components of the khachkar composition The Secular Figurative Reliefs

If we exclude the single expressions of secular images in other territories (Imirzek, Urts, Qanaqer,
Koghes, Mamas, etc.) then secular figurative reliefs were first realized in the 12-13th century
khachkars in Artsakh revealing several domains of folk beliefs. In the 15-17th centuries, secular
figurative reliefs can be found also in Jugha, Gegharquniq and Vayots Dzor. The images carved on
the khachkars in Artsakh depict soldiers, nobility, artisans, women and children. It is possible to
separate themes of warring and feasting, mourning, "family portrait", etc. The "warring and
feasting" theme includes presentations of "military power", hunting, serving of wine, ritual drinking
and the illustrations of the feast itself. The examination of these carvings, as well as comparison
with historical and ethnographical information makes possible to restore two main complexes of
folk beliefs on how to triumph over death: "the eternal feast" and "eternal war".

In the case of the "family portrait", the role of the deceased belongs to the youngsters of the family.
One of the examples of a family "group carving" is the khachkar erected by Petevan in 1265 in
Qanaqer, where the carved images represent Petevan himself and his three sons - a unique group
carving that will be presented at the end of time to the Last Judgment. Some khachkar relief
compositions, which can be categorized under the theme of "weeping mourning", depicts the
deceased with his/her mother. A separate group consists of images of prayers, usually standing, but
frequently kneeled, with hands toward the cross or holy image. Usually the deceased or sometimes
the khachkar erectors are presented in this role. The images involved, with the exception of the last
group, are expressing ideas that are not connected to official Christianity, although the figures are
placed near the cross. But for the contemporary viewers this was not disharmonious: one s fate in
the Last Judgment did not exclude the triumphing over death by feasting or fighting. This is what
permitted the rending of folk perceptions on khachkars.

The main components of the khachkar composition The inscription

The open-air nature of the khachkar meant that the information contained in inscriptions was meant
to be accessible. Thus the inscription was placed on the western part of the stele (on the cornice, on
the pediment, on the edge belt, on the bottom part of the composition, on the pedestal, the altar, the
rosette), so that it would be visible at first glance. It is evident that there was a goal not to mix the
inscription with the decors of the composition in order to secure its readability. Despite this
principle, there are numerous cases where the inscriptions are placed on the sides or on the back of
the steles, occupying more space than the decorative composition itself, and sometimes mixing with
the decor, etc. Several deciphered khachkar inscriptions are also well-known. The detailed
examination of these inscriptions makes possible to state that the decipherment is connected to their
mystic content (refusal from secular life, prediction of advent of the messiah, etc.). These
inscriptions were directed toward a reader with "special training". Some khachkars externally are
more similar to inscribed colophons than to decorated stele. And sometimes the inscriptions appear
as a part of the decoration of the composition and in a few cases even are assimilated into the
vegetative-geometrical carvings or acquire various decorative attachments, thereby becoming more
ornamental. The artistic role of inscriptions develops especially in the 15-17th centuries.

Despite this, khachkars with their limited surface area are distinguished by the short style of their
inscriptions and canonical texts. The examination of numerous texts makes it possible to assert that
khachkar inscriptions consist of the following ideological-structural elements: - An event that
happened before the erection of the khachkar, thus the motivation; - The specific circumstances
surrounding the placement of the khachkar and ratification of the fact of the erection; - The goal of
the erection; - Appeal-advice. In the scheme of the inscription the clear movement of time is visible
- past, present, future. The motivation to place a khachkar is connected to a certain event or to a
change of the event. The documenting (inscribing) of the fact of the erection can be accepted as a
confirmation of the ritual of foundation (with blessing and prayer), and the goal, which can only be
holy, is aimed toward the idea of the salvation of the soul.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition The relief line and the semblance of infinity

In the beginning of the 11th century the main compositional feature gives over to the relief line or to
similar dual-line or triple-line ribbon. In 12th and 13th centuries the rosette, palm decor, the cross,
and corner belts are woven. Imagine that the relief line is a woven thread, which knits the rosette,
then the palm decor, then the cross, then the corner belt, etc. It is not only infinite, but also flexible:
it elastically turns and under all circumstances "tries" to avoid the sharp angles. The infinity of the
line visibly insures the semblance of eternity and completeness of the composition. If we follow this
line, we will be lost in elastic motion and passes, and we will loose the feeling of beginning and
end, and understand that we are following infinity. The creation of a perception of infinity in a
limited space is one of the main design, ideological, and ritualistic features of khachkar
composition. The khachkars are open-air, approachable, observable from close up, and touchable
steles. And the semblance of infinity lends obvious mystery to the khachkar.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition The structure of the composition, symmetry
and asymmetry

The structure of khachkar composition is stipulated by elements of the asymmetrical cross, which
communicates the extension of the composition along vertical and horizontal axes with an
emphasized vertical axis. The cross in the vertical axis of the composition is not only playing the
central but also middle position. It leans on vertical (and/or horizontal) palm decor and on a rosette
that is situated below the palm decor (on a triangle, pedestal, stairs, arches, church structures etc.).
Under the cross (or toward the bottom from the cross) are depicted Adam and mortals, animals,
water or land birds, reptiles. On the upper part from the cross grape rods, pomegranate or similar
images are depicted. On the upper part of the niche or immediately above it on the cornice are
depicted the Sun and the Moon, Jesus Christ, Holy God mother, various saints, high soaring birds,
or birds regarded as birds of paradise. These components and elements that are situated below or
above the cross convey that the khachkar composition has a vertical structure consisting of three
parts. Another characteristic element of khachkar composition is that the trinity is clearly visible
also along the horizontal axis. And this trinity not only is conveyed by the structure of the cross
(vertical axis and right and left wings), but also is visible due to several compositional components -
left and right palm decors (grape and pomegranate fruits, luminous signs, twin birds, etc.), right and
left crosses, vertical corner belts, etc. This trinity can be also confirmed by other components of the
vertical composition: on the level of the cornice and the bottom part of the cross. In many of
khachkars the composition, if we omit the technical deviations or imperfections, appears as an
example of a structure and ornamental symmetry. But the number of those khachkars with
compositions that, with their horizontal symmetry have obvious ornamental asymmetry, and that are
based on the christologocal perception of the left and right, is not small. Thus the khachkar
composition as a principle has a vertical and horizontal triple structure, horizontal structural
symmetry (sometimes even ornamental symmetry) and vertical structural and ornamental
asymmetry.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition The rectilinear "motion" in khachkar
composition, the cross as a common mediator

The cross composition, due to the rectilineal stele and the angularity of the central cross, (the
horizontal wings of which are raised) has emphasized rectilinearity. If we compare the motives,
icons and decors located beneath and above the horizontal wings, then we can state that the bottom
part has more vegetative, flower motives, and the upper part has more fruit motives, while the
bottom part has more water, underground, long-living lizards, quadrupeds, birds, then the top part
has "celestial" birds, more frequently the mortals are depicted under the horizontal wings, and the
saints and immortals are over the horizontal part. We can conclude, that in khachkar composition
the motion from the bottom to top moves from the root to the fruit, from terrestrial to celestial, from
secular to spiritual, from private to public, from past to the future, from death to immortality. The
cross relies on the bottom symbols with its lower symbols, and by its upper wing stretches toward
the upper symbols. The cross visibly connects these two spheres, appearing as an implementer of
common connection between them, with its angular appearance, and underlies the superiority of the
upper sphere over the lower. Taking into consideration the characteristics given to the cross in
khachkar inscriptions, which present the holy symbol as the assistant and savior of the believer, the
mediator and the leader, the guarantor of the saving souls, it could be stated that in khachkar
composition the cross was considered as a negotiator between the believer and god. In fact,
whatever the inscription declared by means of words, the composition stated by means of its
structure. And this is the main and foremost ideology of the khachkar composition.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition The Garden and vineyard

The khachkar composition retained and widely used the iconography and ideology of the cross as a
grape vine and wine press designed, in the early Middle Ages. In both cases the grape also served as
a symbol of holy fruit and of blood. The evidence for this are various birds, which symbolize the
believers, and are depicted enjoying the fruits, the comparison of the grape rod with the wine jug, or
the exchange of grape rods with wine jugs. The same could be said also about pomegranate icons,
which acquired wide usage beginning in the 12th century. Such wide usage of the pomegranate in
khachkar composition, aside from the perceptions of wine, stimulated also the Christian allegory of
pomegranate fruits: under sour rind there are sweet seeds. The grape vine and rods, pomegranate
trees and fruits, besides being just Christ allegories, are good evidence for the Armenian perception
of the world as a garden, which formed at least as early as the Urartian period and, evidently,
developed steadily throughout the whole Middle Ages. If we take into consideration the fact that the
heavenly garden at the end of time typically is similar to the garden that was lost due to Adam s sin,
then we can assert that the upper part of the khachkar s niche and cornice, with their grape-
pomegranate iconography and with various birds enjoying the garden, represent the heavenly
paradise, where the souls of just believers would appear. Thus, it could be affirmed, that khachkar
composition presents one of the most famous complexes of Armenian identity - the garden-
vineyard, giving the semantics of the grape rod and wine press to the cross, and the semantics of
paradise to top part and cornice of the khachkar.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition Alterations of Resurrection

In several khachkar compositions the palm decors on both sides of the bottom wing of the cross are
converted into two "bird wings" where the bottom feathers are similar to reptiles, middle feathers to
nestlings, and the upper feathers are converted into a bird that stubs its beak into its chest. The
examination of these compositions with inclusion of medieval literary sources, makes it possible to
clarify, that images or pelicans or phoenixes represent the alteration of Christs resurrection and the
resurrection of common believers: Just as the pelican bird is piercing its side and reviving its
nestlings with blood, Christ was pierced in his side on the cross and shed his blood for the salvation
of guilty humanity. Or, just as the phoenix bursts into flames and revives, Christ resurrected for the
salvation of humanity.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition The Savior Arrival of the Cross

In khachkar culture the notions of the descent of the cross played an important role - stipulating the
positioning of the khachkar and several iconographical and inscriptional attributes of the
composition. The eastern cardinal direction, from which Christ and the cross arrived, stipulated the
clear orientation of the khachkar in relation to the four cardinal directions. The khachkar
inscriptions are begging the cross to put in a word for the believers, which would have been
meaningless, if there would not be the core notion that at the end of time the cross will come also,
and that it will accompany Christ and be a "participant" in the Last Judgment. The savior aspect of
the cross starts by its appearance as the guard over the deceased, due to which the khachkars were
erected on graves. Together with its protective symbolism, the cross has also been a symbol of the
identity of the believer and during the second descent it would point to the deceased, for whom it
had been erected, and by its light would accompany him/her toward the real cross rising from the
East. Accordingly the cross bearing hands depicted frequently in khachkar composition are the
symbols of the deceased, who will meet the real cross. The arrival of the cross at the end of times is
one of the main ideological and iconographical themes of khachkar culture, and it appears through
several themes, characters and inscriptional texts (heavenly bodies, angels accompanying the cross
and blowing horns, illustrations showing the Last Judgment, birds, cross bearing hands, texts
mentioning the arrival of the cross, referring luminous features to the cross, awaiting the mediation
of the cross during the end of times, etc.). Under the influence of its being the portent of the second
arrival, the cross appeared also as an omen of a holy event, which found its expression in khachkar
culture. As the inscription of the khachkar erected in 1195 near Kosh on the occasion of the
deliverance of the Aragatsotn province from the Seljuks tells that archimandrite Petros with a vision
of a cross predicted the liberation of Armenia from seljuks, and with the realization of the vision
erected the "symbol of the vision" the cross.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition The Cross as victorious weapon

The composition of the khachkar represents the ideology of the victorious cross as well; the basis
for this, first of all, is the salvation of the Crucifixion of Christ and by that his victory upon death.
The military appearance of the cross was also influenced by the ritual of baptism, by the stories of
the destruction of hell by Christ, and the visions of Constantine the Great and Grigor the
Enlightener. As a result, the cross became the main weapon of various struggling saints and church
officials and had its different illustrative manifestations. The similarity of the outer shape a sword
and the cross could also be a basis for this manifestations (the upper rectilinear wing of the cross is
the handle, the horizontal wings the divider and the rectilinear bottom wing - the sword blade). The
protective feature of the cross is described in details in khachkar inscriptions. The cross is described
as the victor over enemies and a non blunting weapon sharpened by holy blood, inaccessible
fortress, etc. Several inscriptions detail that the very stele is blessed by the blood of the creator. The
fact that the sanctification of the cross carved on the stele in reality meant sanctification of the stele
could become the basis for such claims: the blessing gives certain sanctity not only to the cross but
to the stele bearing the cross as well. The sanctification was considered also as a gesture of forging:
just as blacksmiths forge a sword to strengthen it the cross is was forged during Christ s crucifixion
by his blood. Some inscriptions give a basis to restore the "assaulting" feature of the cross. The
widespread socialization of the image of the fighting cross and khachkar were very contemporary
for the Armenian medieval ages. When foreign invasions and destructions were a very common
phenomenon and war became a required part of life, these steles, as mirrors of identity, should
include and reflect these emotions as well. In the khachkar composition the rectilinear palm
decoration that is placed immediately under the cross sometimes has knotting bends and snake-like
knobs, that can be compared to the dragons that coil under the cross-like arrows of saints.

The Structure and Ideology of Khachkar Composition The life-tree ideology in Khachkar
composition, khachkar as a common model of Armenian world

Starting in the early middle ages, the cross had been compared and confronted with tree of life of
the Garden of Eden. According to a wide list of depictions the church represents the new paradise,
while the cross is the new tree of life. However if the tree of life in paradise had been carrying the
forbidden fruit or had been guarded by cherubim, then one of the most characteristic attributes of
the new tree of life was its openness, freedom, accessibility - an idea that played a tremendous role
also in the public location of khachkars. The theological thought of medieval Armenia is presenting
the cross as an unnatural, god created tree that incorporates the best aspects of all "natural" sorts of
trees and flowers (brabion flower, Lebanese cedar, platan, cypress, palm, fig-tree etc.). On this tree-
flower basis the cross, first of all, gets significance by the fact that it bears the "life fruit" - Christ,
by which it becomes a tree of life. It is possible to assert that the khachkar composition, by
depicting the cross with olive-tree, palm, lily and other visibly indistinguishable plant decorations
and comparisons, is fully in accordance with medieval interpreters. Still it is possible to affirm that
the khachkar composition presents much more than what the interpreters have enumerated. The
khachkar composition is contrasting the tree sorts and fruits of the holy bible and paradise with the
Armenian garden-paradise trees and fruits (grape vine, pomegranate tree, apple tree, and the fruits
and flowers of these trees, etc), almost like the Armenians in the Middle Ages were contrasting the
gardener image of Christ with the image of the good gardener-king, or the paradise tree of life with
grape vine. Therefore the khachkar composition to a certain extent compares the Christian paradise-
garden notions with Armenian traditional garden-paradise notions. At the same time the cross is
unique, it's the only tree of the world and the universe. The cross appears as a tree grown on the
earth and a tree that filled all the territory on the earth, the skies, the space between them, and a tree
erected in the universe and as a universe savior tree. In such circumstances the cross could not
possibly be depicted in khachkar compositions as just a wooden structure; it should have pointed in
a visible manner its growth and flourishing, and especially the divine power of fruitfulness: it
should have been vegetated, blossoming, but at the same time with fruits, just as the eternal tree of
life of paradise would have been. In 12-14th centuries the classic khachkar composition is full of
vegetation, it is flourishing representing the fruitfulness of not only the cross, but also of its
environment. If prior to the 11th century the flourishing and fruitfulness of the cross and overall the
tree theme was applied to the khachkar by referrals and additions, then with the formation of the
final khachkar composition the cross itself received vegetative illustration: each wing of the cross
received two branches, which in its turn were completed with a decor consisting of grape triple-leaf
and flowers. After this the khachkar composition, as a rule, is appearing with such a "blossoming"
cross, which stands on the earth, with its top in the skies, it is blossoming and has leaves, but at the
same time has fruits. During the description of the khachkar composition it has been expressed that
it has a triple structure, the middle section of which is occupied by the cross-tree itself, the bottom
symbolizes the earth, the top - the skies. The cross-tree by itself points up and down, to the dragon
and god, left and right, secular and spiritual, the past and the future, the death and immortality, it
categorizes the vegetation, animals, people and saints, in other words obviously integrates several
attributes of world tree or tree of universe. It is difficult to pinpoint any other cultural expression in
the Armenian Middle Ages that would present the core-common notions of the Armenian society
about the world in such a clear, detailed and persuasive manner. All this gives a basis to assert that
the khachkar is a model of the medieval Armenian general conception of a world.

Relations of the khachkar with other cultural complexes Khachkar and Temple Khachkar and
book Khachkar and Gravestone Click for Gallery Khachkar and Temple

The Armenian cultural environment is impossible to imagine without the khachkar: the khachkar
acts as an indicator of the location of spiritual complexes, an organizer and a culturing agent of their
surrounding natural environment, accompanying the believer and pilgrims to holy places. The roads
and surroundings of holy places are dotted with small chattels, khachkars, holy letters and springs.
The Armenian church had been following the rule referred to St. Nerses which prohibited burials in
a Christian temple. And although starting from 10th century certain temples allowed noble houses
to have their own closed graveyards that were attached to the western part of the churches, the
tradition of burials and the erecting of khachkars near churches was practiced until the late middle
ages. They not only enriched the view of the structure but underlined the special attitude of
medieval Armenian society toward the deceased, when society was perceived as a common society
of alives and the deceased. The khachkar was presented also as a detail of three-dimension solution
or framework of church structures and other spiritual complexes; being used as building material, or
a part of the artistic decoration of a temple or church. Often khachkars and carved pieces from
surrounding areas were collected and formed open air galleries near the walls of spiritual structures.
The khachkar with its three-dimensionality and carving solution displays architectural-practical
feature that are characteristic of a Christian temple. The outline of the khachkar composition on the
one hand presents external rectangularity, and internally, the cross harkens to the plan of temple and
the rectilinear profile of dome temple. Thirdly it is similar to the temples decorated, alter etc. An
examination shows that the khachkar matched the dual measure of the church in its composition
(west-east and top-bottom), by this uniting ritual and ideological (which in church structure remains
to a certain extend divided), which made the spiritual communication with the khachkar more for
the believer.

Khachkar and Gravestone

The biggest collections of khachkars originate from churches and cemeteries, which served as a
basis to consider a khachkar as a gravestone. Researchers of khachkars are inclined to move away
from this "unfortunate portrayal". But a connection between the khachkar and a burial, in cases
when it is erected on a tomb leaves hardly any doubt. A khachkar can be erected on any occasion
that was not regarded as contradictory to Christian world perceptions and morality of the time, thus
death in the middle ages was a main motive for erecting a khachkar. The khachkar is in Armenian
medieval cemetery structure realized the function of the rectilinear component. It is typical that in
the middle ages it was almost impossible that a cross composition be carved on a plain gravestone.
Before the appearance of khachkar the upper portion of a grave structure, as a rule, was either in the
form of the upper part of the rectangular parallelepiped with two sloping surfaces upper (the model
of ark or church basilica structure) or just a plain horizontally placed slab. With the appearance and
individualization of the khachkar grave structures acquired duality: a plain (or rectangular
parallelepiped) gravestone that was placed horizontally and a rectilinear erected khachkar. Thus the
cross as a common negotiator absolutely assumed a rectilinear position (as also the khachkar had),
and with this the khachkar was basically distinguished from any gravestone.

Khachkar and book

According to several Christian and Armenian traditional perceptions, on the Last day the deeds of
humanity will be presented by the help of the book of life, which is compiled by angels. The top of
the khachkar- the composition of Christ as a Pantocrator on a Throne with images of saints and
sometimes begging mortals presents this trial. The book of life can be filled by the believer or by
his relatives - by inscribing the good deeds, name and the image. Such a role was delivered to hand
written colophans, temples, decors and ceramics presented to religious centers, generally - to any
surface, object of holy structure on which the writing of the name and/or image can be left. In this
list the role of the khachkar is very crucial, which as a rule, was an individual stele and gave an
opportunity to present the "deed" of a separate individual. In fact, the khachkar with its plain-
rectangular form (which recalls a book or a page of a book), with its inscription (which is very
similar to a text in a book), with the depiction of mortals and, by its monumentality, which is also
important, appeared as a "book of life", which will represent the believer to the Last Judgment.

Bibliography 1. Brentjes B. Armenian Tombstones and Turkish Adaptations in the 14th, 15th and
16th Centuries - Fifth International Symposium of Armenian Art, Venezia, San Lazaro, 1988, p.159-
162. 2. Dalton O. M. British Museum. A Guide to the Early Christian and Byzantine Antiquities in
the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities, London, 1903. 3. Der Nersessian S. Armenian
Art, Paris, 1978. 4. Gough M. The Origins of Christian Art, London, 1973. 5. Ferguson G. Signs
and Symbols in Christian Art, London, Oxford, New York, 1989. 6. Harbison P. Irish High Crosses
with the Figure Sculptures Explained, Drogheda, 1994. 7. Hutter I. Early Christian and Buzantine,
London, 1988. 8. Petrosyan H. The Khachkar or Cross-Stone - In: Armenian Folk Arts, Culture and
Identity /Ed. by L. Abrahamian and N. Sweezy, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 2001, p. 60-70. 9.
Petrosyan H. The Sacred Mountain - In: Armenian Folk Arts, Culture and Identity, p. 33-39. 10.
Petrosyan H. The Temple. - In: Armenian Folk Arts, Culture and Identity, p. 44-51. 11. Petrosyan H.
The World as a Garden - In: Armenian Folk Arts, Culture and Identity, p. 25-32. 12. Petrosyan H.
Writing and the Book - In: Armenian Folk Arts, Culture and Identity, p. 52-59. 13. Richardson H.
The Jewelled Cross and its Canopy - From the Isles of the North. Early medieval Art Ireland and
Britain, Belfast, 1994, p. 177-186. 14. Schiller G. Iconography of Christian Art. London, vol. 2,
1972. 15. Strzygowski G. Die Baukunst des Armenie und Europa, Wien, 1918, bd. 1. 16. Van Loo
K. Zur ikonographie armenischen Kreuzsteines - Armenien Wiederentdeekung einer alten
Kulturandschaft, Bochum, 1995, s. 115-117.