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Reviewer in Physical Science
Reviewer in Physical Science
Cosmology
Is a branch of astronomy that involves the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang
to today and on into the future.
— 3 cosmic stages
• BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: Formed the light elements (H, He, and Li)
• STELLAR FORMATION AND EVOLUTION: Formed the elements heavier than Be to Fe.
• STELLAR EXPLOSION, or SUPERNOVA: Formed the elements heavier than Fe.
• The cloud of hydrogen and helium gases condensed to form STARS. (including the
Sun)
• Over millions of years, the stars made of hydrogen become hotter and denser.
• NUCLEAR REACTIONS continued, which produced elements heavier than
Lithium.
• The light elements combined to form atoms of Carbon, Neon, Oxygen, Silicon, and
Iron.
• Outer shell until the core of the star: (in order)
Hydrogen
Helium
Berylium
Carbon
Neon
Oxygen
Silicon
Nickle
Iron (most stable nuclei and the final stage of a star wherein can’t undergo nuclear
fusion)
• young star (yellow) — red giant star
• Fusion Shells — involved the formation of each new element happened in a
regions/layer.
• As more elements were produced, new layers added up to the size of the star until it
become a red giant star.
• As layer increases, the density of the star increases.
• released a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced, through neutron capture
and radioactive decay– other elements heavier than iron.
• All these elements, along with fragments of the star during supernova, were released
into the vast space and gradually condensed to form the different planets like Earth,
new stars, and other heavenly bodies.
• was first expressed in the early 1900’s, when Edwin Hubble offered an explanation
that the universe is expanding.
• Hubble’s Law: is a statement of a direct correlation between the redshift.
GREEK PHILOSOPHERS
Leucippus of Melitus
Democritus of Abdera — He named the smallest piece of matter “atomos,”
meaning “not to be cut.” The Greek word “atomos” means “indivisible” or
“uncuttable”. Small, hard particles, can’t see through naked eye. Always moving
& capable of joining together.
Claims:
• They were both called Physicist of Ancient Greece.
• They considered the idea of ATOMISM.
• Idea that things are made up of so much smaller things that cannot be change nor
divided.
• This theory was ignored & forgotten for more than 2000 years.
Aristotle — very famous Greek philosopher who believed that matter could be
divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever.
— developed a theory that all matter consisted of four elements namely, fire,
earth, air, and water. These four elements are related based on “four principles of
matter”, these are the hot, the moist, dry and cold.
Alchemists:
• Groups of people who practiced an art which is now known as alchemy.
• made potions out of plants and other natural products.
• They used these potions to cure illnesses such as coughs and colds and treatment of
wounds and other skin irregularities.
• They tried to create a potion that will make them immortal known as the sorcerer’s
stone, which will make them immortal and will turn ordinary metals into gold.
but failed to do so
Robert Boyle, Hendry Cavendish, Joseph Priestly — The legacy of creating
potions (by extractions, distillations and other common laboratory practices) was
inherited by experimental naturalists towards the end of the middle ages. The
tools and apparatus used by these alchemists, together with their analytical
methods are now the ones used by modern day chemists.
John Dalton — Dalton’s Atomic Theory, the first experimentally based theory of
atomic structure of the atom.
Postulates:
• All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms.
• All the atoms of a particular element are identical, but the atoms of one element
differ from the atoms of any other element.
• Atoms of different element combine with each other in certain whole-number
proportions to form compounds.
• In a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged to form new compounds.
Joseph John Thomson (JJ Thomson) — discovered that atoms were not just
simple solid spheres.
— Electrons were the first subatomic particles to be discovered using the
cathode ray tube, developed by Sir William Crookes.
— He called these particles electrons, from the word elektron (Greek for
amber) first used by William Gilbert in 1600.
— Thomson’s Model: plum pudding model, an atomic model in which
electrons were stuck into a positively charged sphere like chocolate chips in cookie
dough. (mabilis natanggal sa science dahil parang trip-trip lang daw)
DISCOVERY OF PROTON
Eugen Goldstein — used the cathode ray tube that revealed the presence of
positive particles in an atom.
Niels Bohr — believe that electrons in an atom exist in specific regions at various
distances from the nucleus. (umiikot ang electron sa nucleus)
— theorized that electrons had several possible orbits ( Energy level)
— energy of electron is said to be quantized
— When a hydrogen atom absorbed one or more quanta of energy, its electron
would “jump” to an orbit at a greater distance away from the nucleus. (excited state)
— When a atom released energy, its atom/electron would “jump” closer.
(ground state)
Bohr atom — Bohr’s model has been known as the PLANETARY MODEL
because it compares electrons, the planets and the nucleus, the sun.
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRONS
— found inside the nucleus together with protons
James Chadwick — showed that uncharged particles are emitted when atoms of
beryllium are bombarded with high velocity particles.
— a neutron has no charge (neutral)
— slightly mas mabigat sa protons
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• mass number (A) — The sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
— Mass number = # protons + # neutrons
— # NEUTRONS = Atomic mass - # Protons
SUPERSCRIPT
SUBSCRIPT
CHEMICAL BOND
— an electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of an atom and
which binds atoms together.
— Type of attraction is called Intramolecular force.
— Three types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent and metallic bond.
IONIC BOND
— Transfer of one or more valence electrons of an atom to another
— Bond between metal (loses electrons, low electronegativity) and non-metal
elements (gains electron, high electronegativity and attraction)
— Can be classified as polar ionic bond, dahil laging mataas ang kanilang
electronegativity
— 8th octet rule
• Kung mas mataas ang proton sa isang ion magg-gain or dapat postive.
• Cation — positive.
• Positive — loose
• Anion — negative
• Negative — gains
COVALENT BOND
— sharing of electron pair between atoms
— bond between both non-metals
— classified as polar covalent bond & non-polar covalent bond
— △EN: absolute value of the electronegativity difference
— high BP, high MP, high electronegativity, high attraction
— low electronegativity, low attraction
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
electronegativity
Greater than 1.8 IONIC POLAR
4 TYPES:
• Ion to ion interaction — exist between oppositely charged ions. (Ionic compounds)
— strongest IMF
— Most ion-ion interaction is strong and compounds which have them a high
melting and boiling points.
4 TYPES:
Carbohydrates — Carbon, Hydrogen, and Osygen CH20
— sometimes called as “hydrates of carbon”
— highly polar molecules, can be dissolved & mixed on the water
— mono(one)saccharide(sugar), building block of carb. That’s why it’s rich in
sugar, cheapest source of energy
• Mono:
— Glucose: known as “grape sugar” & “blood sugar” convert into PYRUVATE. Can
be found in dextrose. Suagr level: 74
— Fructose: found in certain fruit juices & honey. Sweeter and more soluble than
glucose. Sweetest sugar, SL: 173
— Lactose: used in thickener in sauces & ice creams. Synthesized in the mammary
glands. SL: 32
• Disaccharides:
— Sucrose: glucose + fructose, found in regular sugar, sugar cane
— Maltose: glucose + glucose, found in malt
— Lactose: glucose + galactose, found in milk & dairy products
• Polysaccharides:
— Starch: storage form of glucose in plants
— Glycogen: storage form of glucose in animals, stored in the liver & muscles
— Cellulose (fiber): structural material in plants (cell wall)
Lipids — all are non-polar molecular, non soluble in water but are soluble in non-
polar solvents like ether & other organic solvents
— “LIPOS” greek word means “fats”, can’t be dissolve and mix in water
— provides more energy than carb and protein
— insulates body temp. & signals in molecules
— can be found in fatty foods (algae, oil, butter, nuts, fats of fishes)
— fatty acids, its building blocks
• Membraine Lipids:
— Glycerophospholipids: major components of cell membranes & cellular organelle
membraines. One of the most important.
— Sphingophospholipid: structural components of all membranes and the myelin
sheath of nerve cells and neuron, can be found on our brain.
— Sphingoglycolipids: occur primarily in brain cells (simple: Cerebrosides
complex: Gangliosides)
— Cholesterol: membrane lipid that is embedded inside the lipid bilayer.
• Messenger Lipids:
— cholesterol derivative that functions as agents (ang iba ay sumasama sa blood
stream, ang iba ay hindi)
— Steroid Hormones: sex and adrenorocorticoid hormones. (sumasama sa blood
stream)
— Eicosanoid Hormones: hindi sumasama sa blood stream. Can’t be considered as
the hormones. Lumalabas kapag nakakaramdam ng trauma ang body.
• Emulsification Lipid:
— also called “bile acids”
— produced in the liver or gall bladder
— 2 important types: Cholic acids & Deoxycholic acids
• Structures:
— Primary: sequence of amino acids that are linked together. Single-starnd (silk)
— Secondary: Resulted from coiling or foiling of the polypeptide chain. (keratin)
— Tertiary: pinagsamang primary and secondary, called MYOGLOBIN (makes our
muscles and other parts of the body, color RED)
— Quarternary: highest level of protein structure, called globular protein.
HEMOGLOBIN
2 TYPES:
— RNA: Ribonucleic acid, protein synthesis, gumagawa ng proteins sa ating katawan,
single strand.
— DNA: Genetic codes, Deoxyribonucleic acid, double strand
CHEMICAL REACTION
— a process with one or more substances are changed into diff. Substances
(photosynthesis, digestive system, and more) There’s alteration either to create or
break a bond. Once ag-endergo ng chem reaction, hindi na babalik sa dati.
2 PARTS:
• Reactants: original substances, chemical, will undergo chem reactions, usually on
left sides.
• Products: the resulting substnaces. May bond na. They create water molecules.
SOLID :
— Packed closely together
— strongest force of attraction, mataas ang IMF
— can only vibrate in place
— lowest KE
— high force, low KE
LIQUID:
— Molecules are loosely packed and have space in between
— strong force of attraction anf KE
— can make sliding motion past each other
— moderate IMF and KE
GAS:
— Far from each other
— weakest or no considerable force of attraction
— strongest KE
— low IMF, high KE
COLLISION THEORY
— states that for reactions to occur, molecules, atoms, or ions must 1st collide.
— proposed by Max Trautz in 1916 and William Lewis 1918.
2 Requirements:
• Reactant particles require sufficient energy to initiate successful collisions that will
lead to the formation of products. (have high, sufficient, enough energy)
• Particles that collide in the correct geometric orientation (position) will successfully
form products. (dapat ay sabay-sabay na magbanggaan)