Source potential of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic rocks in the South Caspian Basin

and their role in forming the oil accumulations in the Lower

Pliocene reservoirs
Akper A. Feyzullayev1, Ibrahim S. Guliyev1 and Mushfig F. Tagiyev1
Institute of Geology, H. Cavid, 29A, PO 370143, Baku, Azerbaijan.

ABSTRACT: The source potential and organic maturity of the shales alternating with the
reservoir beds in the Lower Pliocene Productive Series — the major oil-bearing unit in
the South Caspian Basin — are inadequate to have formed the observed petroleum
accumulations. A geochemical study of rocks collected from wells and outcrop
localities has been carried out to assess the oil- and gas-generative properties of the
Middle Jurassic to Lower Pliocene sediments of the basin. On the whole the section
under review is characterized by poor to good organic richness and low hydrogen
index, suggesting type 2 and 3 kerogens. Organic-rich sediments are relatively frequent
in parts of the Oligocene—Miocene interval. Source-to-oil correlation based on carbon
isotope signatures points to a largely epigenetic origin for the oils reservoired in the
Lower Pliocene. Isotopically, the oils in these Productive Series reservoirs are best
correlated with organic matter contained in the Miocene sediments.

KEYWORDS: source rock, oil property, carbon isotope ratio, South Caspian Basin,
Azerbaijan.

INTRODUCTION GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The SCB is underlain by thinned continental or oceanic crust and
The South Caspian Basin (SCB) is among the oldest oil- and gas-
formed as the result of collision between the Arabian and
bearing provinces in the world, for as early as the sixth century
Eurasian plates. On the north the SCB is bounded by the
AD seep oil was used by local people. Commercial oil production
mountains of the Greater Caucasus, in the sea by the Absheron—
using hand-dug shallow pits began in the middle nineteenth
Balkhanside sill and beyond that by the Kubadag and Greater
century. At present, oil and gas are produced from reservoirs over
Balkhan mountains (Fig. 1). On the south the SCB adjoins the
a wide stratigraphic range: from the Upper Cretaceous to Upper
Pliocene. The majority of commercial oil reserves, however, are
located in the Lower Pliocene Productive Series (>75%), with the
remainder in the Miocene-Palaeogene (c. 15%) and the Upper
Cretaceous (c. 10%). A question arises: what is the source of the
great amount of oil accumulated in the Productive Series — is it
syngenetic or epigenetic to this formation? Previous studies have
dealt with isolated aspects of the problem based on limited
amount of data covering parts of the stratigraphic section
(Zhabrev & Mehtiyev 1959; Ali-zadeh et al. 1975; Korchagina et
al. 1988; Abrams & Narimanov 1997). The earliest report based
on a modern geochemical study of the hydrocarbon generative
potential of sediments in the South Caspian was published by
Bailey et al. (1996). The latest study, which gives the Maykop
Suite as the only source unit for the Productive Series reservoir oils
and rules out the Diatom Suite as a source, is by Katz et al.
(2000). The present paper aims to answer the above question on
the basis of modern methods of study and using a statistically
significant amount of data collected from a large area and
covering nearly all of the stratigraphic range.

Presented at the 61st RAGE Conference, Helsinki, June 1999, P526. Fig. 1. Location map of the South Caspian Basin with major
geographical and geological features; the study area is indicated with
Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 7 2001, pp. 409-417 shading.

1354-0793/01/J15.00 © 2001 EAGE/Geological Society of London

410 A. A. Feyzullayev et al.
Thickness
SYSTEM/ SERIES STAGE SUBSTAGE
(m)
SYSTEM/ STAGE Thickness
200-650 SERIES (m)
QUATENARY
ABSHERON 840-1200
U.Plio AGJAGIL 70-100 DANIAN
SURAKHANY

Upper
SABUNCHI MAASTRICH.
BALAKHANY
PLIOCENE

FASILE (BREAK) SUITE

L.Pliocene CAMPANIAN
SUPRA-KIRMAKI
PRODUCTIVE

UPPER
SHALE 2200-3800
SERIES 2000-2100
SUPRA-KIRMAKI SANTONIAN

Lower
SANDSTONE
KIRMAKI

CRETACEOUS
INFRA-KIRMAKI CONIACIAN
GALA
PONTIAN 200-400 TURONIAN
CENOZOIC

UPPER MIOCENE MEOTIAN

CENOMANIAN
SARMATIAN ALBIAN
TERTIARY

DIATOM SUITE

MESOZOIC
KONK APTIAN

KARAGAN BARREMIAN

LOWER
MIDDLE 2400-2600
MIOCENE CHOKRAK 120-500 HAUTERIVIAN
SPIRIALIS BEDS
VALANGINIAN
TARKHAN 50

BERRIASIAN
LOWER MIOCENE UPPER
MAYKOP TITHONIAN

UPPER
OLIGOCENE LOWER 900-1100 900-950
KIMMERIDG

JURASSIC
UPPER OXFORDIAN

EOCENE KOUN MIDDLE 800-900 CALLOVIAN

LOWER

MIDDLE
BATHONIAN
1400-1600
PALAEOGENE SUMGAIT 275-300 BAJOCIAN Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column for the South
AALENIAN
Caspian Basin. Thicknesses from Ali-
zadeh et al. (1966).

Fig. 3. Cross-section of the sedimentary

package through the onshore and deep-
water South Caspian Basin interpreted
on the basis of a 12s seismic profile
(Mamedov 1991; location on Fig. 1).

Lesser Caucasus and Elburz Mountains. On the west the area pre-Jurassic basement and the basal strata of the sedimentary
borders the Talysh—Vandam gravity maximum, and on the east is cover was gained through an interpretation of 12 s seismic
restricted by the Lesser Balkhan—Kopetdag Mountains. sections extending E—W across the South Caspian (Mamedov
As a tectonic unit, the SCB includes the south part of the 1991). As can be seen on Figure 3, separate blocks descend
Caspian Sea and surrounding onshore areas and is characterized stepwise along subvertical faults to the central part of the basin.
by very rapid Pliocene—Quaternary subsidence and sedimen- Within a distance of 60-70 km the basement rapidly descends
tation (1.2-3.0 km Ma"1). The sedimentary fill of the SCB is under stratified formations of the sedimentary cover down to a
represented by deposits of Middle Jurassic to Quaternary age depth of over 20 km. Present-day subsurface temperatures in the
(Fig. 2), of which the Neogene interval occupies the greater part of basin are quite low (see Fig. 3) as a result of the suppressed
the section. Information on the structural features of the thermal regime typical for rapidly subsiding basins.
 Source potential in the South Caspian Basin
Fig. 4. Distribution of sample collection localities (outcrops, oil
fields and mud volcanoes).
The SCB is distinguished by its low heat flow (25—51 mW m-2;
Guliyev et al. 1991) and great thickness (up to 25 km) of the
young Mesozoic-Cenozoic sediments. Overpressuring is common,
for the basinal section is dominated by argillaceous lithologies.
The extensively faulted and fractured sedimentary package of the
basin abounds with mud diapirs and mud volcanoes. Oil and gas
seepages are widely encountered across the basin. The suppressed
thermal regime caused by such a rapid sedimentation is
responsible for an unusually deep oil window in the basin (Wavrek
et al. 1996; Inan et al. 1997; Tagiyev et al. 1997).
SAMPLES AND METHODS
A stratigraphic range from Middle Jurassic to Lower Pliocene in
the SCB has been covered by source rock studies. Analyses were
performed on over 500 rock samples collected from over 50
localities, including outcrops, mud volcanoes (ejecta) and
boreholes (Fig. 4). The bulk of samples were taken at natural
exposures of rocks (37 localities). The extent to which different
units were covered by the sampling was determined by their
surface outcrop distribution. In this respect the Maykop Series
was the most extensively studied formation, the Chokrak unit was
represented by a limited number of samples, and Lower Eocene,
Lower Jurassic and Pontian units were not studied. Organic
geochemical study of the Lower Pliocene unit has been conducted
mostly using core samples collected from offshore oilfields, with
a few samples from outcrops.
Sampling was selective related to the lithological character of
the particular section and aimed to make the most coverage of
argillaceous intervals differing in colour and thickness. The
number of samples taken from an outcrop varied between 5 and
56. To minimize the impact of exogenic factors on samples, they
were collected after removal of an upper 20—50 cm layer of rock.
The laboratory studies of organic matter (OM) included optical
examination, pyrolysis, determination of total organic carbon
(TOC) content and carbon isotopic composition of
411
kerogen and individual fractions of the extractable OM. Optical
data included measurements of vitrinite reflectance, thermal
alteration index (TAI) and spore colour index (SCI).
TOC was determined on a LECO CS444 device using the
decarbonated residue of powdered samples. Programmed
pyrolysis was performed on powdered whole rock samples
using a LECO THA-200 device. This technique provides the
following parameters: SI (mg of free and adsorbed hydro-
carbons per gram of rock), S2 (mg of hydrocarbons per gram of
rock, obtained by thermal decomposition of kerogen), Tmax
(the temperature corresponding to maximum rate of S2 yield)
and the hydrogen index (HI), a measure of hydrocarbon
generative potential of kerogen and its preservation state
(mgS2g-1TOC).
The stable isotopic composition of kerogen and individual
fractions of extracts were analysed using a VG 602C and CJS
Sigma masspectrometers.
Vitrinite reflectance measurements were made on polished
surfaces of whole rock samples.
SOURCE POTENTIAL OF SEDIMENTS
The data on source properties of rocks produced through
pyrolysis indicate that among different age units of the SCB the
Oligocene—Miocene has the highest potential for petroleum
generation (Fig. 5). A considerable amount of data has been
summarized to provide a quantitative notion of the distribution
and variation range of geochemical parameters (Table 1).
Geochemical features of the sedimentary units are discussed
individually below.
Middle Jurassic
The studied sequence (c. 1500 m thick) is Aalenian to Callovian
and consists mainly of clayey lithofacies interbedded with
fine-grained sandstones, siltstones and argillites. The colour
range is dark grey to black. In the lower part of the section
(Aalenian) clayey and sideritic concretions nearly 2 m in diam-
eter are present. Within the Late Bathonian—Early Callovian
interval 10 m of good quality source rock is overlain by a
further 10 m of very good oil source rock.
From the palaeogeographic data available it can be suggested
that during Late Bathonian—Early Callovian a closed basin with
a reducing environment and possibly increased water salinity
was in existence. The Pr/Ph ratio spans the range 0.39—1.41.
The composition of the OM is mixed, with amorphous algal,
inertinitic woody and herbaceous input, corresponding to
kerogen type 2 and type 3. TOC content has a mean value at
0.76% and varies in the range 0.05—3.41%. The oil source
potential of the Jurassic rocks is not high (HI: 22—413, mean
87).
Cretaceous
Few Hauterivian samples were obtained for this study, most
emphasis being placed upon the Aptian—Cenomanian interval
and upon the Maastrichtian. Generally, the Cretaceous is
characterized by poor source rocks. The TOC content in the
studied samples varies from 0.05 to 1.84% with the low mean
value of 0.22%. The HI shows values characteristic of a gas-
prone source, with the average value of 83.
Palaeocene
This is the poorest unit with respect to OM content. The
studied samples (n=11) showed TOC values in the range 0.01-
0.08%, averaging 0.03%.
412 A, A.. Fey^ullayev et al.

Table 1. Data summary for pyrolysis-derived geockemical parameters for the

stratigraphic internals of the South Caspian Basin

Number Minimu Mean Maxim Std.D

of samples m um ev.
Productive Series (L. Pliocene)
TOC (wt%) 95 0.02 0.47 2.71 0.56
HI (mgHC g-1 TOC) 28 15 147 334 107
SI (mgHCg-1 rock) 28 0.08 4.94 29.78 7.95
S2 (mgHC g-1 rock) 28 0.14 1.94 7.28 1.98
Tmax (°C) 28 333 408 437 28
Ro (%) 14 0.31 0.58 0.90 0.17
Diatom (M.-U. Miocene)
TOC 88 0.05 0.63 2.19 0.44
HI 54 12 105 427 82
SI 54 0.06 0.39 1.45 0.31
S2 54 0.07 1.20 9.35 1.72
Tmax 50 408 429 441 8
Ro 21 0.25 0.48 0.89 0.2
Chokrak (M. Miocene)
TOC 10 0.09 1.10 2.44 0.70
HI 8 73 204 541 158
SI 8 0.1 0.39 0.65 0.21
S2 8 0.74 3.21 10.88 3.55
Tmax 6 426 431 435 4
Ro 4 0.33 0.38 0.45 0.05
Maykop (Oligocene— -L.Miocene)
TOC 174 0.07 1.86 15.1 1.79
HI 141 11 146 612 97
SI 141 0.08 0.88 6.51 0.87
S2 141 0.02 4.06 74.04 8.60
Tmax 139 400 423 464 10
Ro 48 0.21 0.39 0.76 0.13
Eocene
TOC 16 0.02 0.46 0.90 0.35
HI 9 13 19 29 5
SI 9 0.04 0.12 0.20 0.06
S2 9 0.08 0.14 0.23 0.06
Tmax 9 406 422 437 5
Ro 4 0.26 0.53 0.67 0.18
Cretaceous
TOC 84 0.05 0.22 1.84 0.22
HI 23 15 83 220 66
SI 23 0.05 0.32 1.92 0.41
S2 23 0.06 0.39 3.82 0.77
Tmax 22 398 429 460 16
Ro 14 0.38 0.62 0.80 0.11
Jurassic
Fig. 5. Annotated diagrams of pyrolysis parameters: (a) source rock 59 0.05 0.76 3.41 0.66
TOC
potential classified according to categories of Peters (1986); (b)
qualitative source characteristics of organic matter in rocks of HI 36 22 87 413 94
different stratigraphic units. SI 36 0.00 0.17 0.57 0.11
S2 36 0.23 1.39 13.57 2.78
Tmax 36 431 479 543 33
Eocene Ro 12 0.26 0.98 1.96 0.64

These strata contain inertinitic and woody OM and are poor in

TOC content and genetic hydrocarbon potential. With an
average TOC of 0.46%, the HI for the samples analysed does
not exceed 29.
Oligocene—Lower Miocene (Maykop Series)
Earlier organic-geochemical studies of the Maykop Formation
documented these strata as a potential source rock for oil in the
area (Zhabrev & Mehtiyev 1959; Ali-zadeh et al. 1975; Korcha-
gina et al. 1988). The present study has allowed us to verify the
conclusion on the basis of a large volume of modern analytical
data.
OM in the Maykop sediments consists chiefly of amorphous
algal organic material. Good source rocks are best developed in
the Upper Maykop in the east of the study area towards the
Caspian Sea. Offshore these sediments are likely to be richer
and more uniform but onshore there are significant variations
both vertically and laterally, recording short- and long-term
differences in the environment of deposition. Sediments of the
Maykop Series are distinguished by their high TOC content,
which reaches 15.1%, with a mean of 1.86%. The HI values
vary between 11 and 612, with an average of 146.
Middle Miocene
The Chokrak Formation was studied in a limited number of
samples (n=10). The HI values suggest that the source potential
 Source potential in the South Caspian Basin
Fig. 6. Annotated diagram indicating improvement of source quality
of organic matter in the Diatom sediments towards the basinal deeps.
of the sediments is favourable for generation of liquid and gas
hydrocarbons (TOC: 0.09-2.44% and HI: 73-541). The thickness
of the Chokrak unit is less than those of the Maykop and Diatom
strata.
Middle—Upper Miocene Diatom Series
This is considered to be one of the principal source rocks in the
SCB. Most of the claystones in the studied Diatom sections are of
fair source quality, though, in some sections there are several
intervals, each a few metres thick, of good source quality. Thus,
on the whole, the sediments of the Diatom Series in the
Shamakhy—Gobustan area are not rich in organic matter (average
TOC 0.63%). The HI ranges from 12 to 427 mg HC g"1 rock,
while the mean value is 105.
Down the regional dip of the strata, the quantity and quality of
OM in the Diatom Series increase and become more favourable
with respect to oil generation. This is seen from the results
obtained on the Diatom rocks ejected by mud volcanoes located
in southeast Gobustan and on core samples from wells drilled on
the Baku Archipelago (Fig. 6). The kerogen in this unit of the
sedimentary complex for the most part corresponds to type 2. A
higher content of TOC (0.09-7.8%; mean 1.03) and HI values
(107-708; mean 308) point to the good hydrocarbon-forming
potential of this unit in the deepest parts of the basin.
Lower Pliocene
Claystones of the Productive Series have been examined in core
samples from oilfields. The sediments of the Productive Series
were deposited in deltaic and near-shore/marine environments
(Reynolds et al. 1998). Organic matter in this unit has poor source
quality', with kerogen of types 2/3, composed largely of reworked
and woody material with minor amorphous and algal input. TOC
values lie in the range 0.02-2.71%, (mean 0.47%), with HI
variable from 15 to 334 (mean 147). The hydrocarbon generative
potential and the organic maturity of shales contained in the
Productive Series are inadequate to have formed the observed
great petroleum resources. It should be noted that in the generally
thermally unaltered sediments of the unit the majority of samples
have PI values considerably exceeding 0.2, thereby suggesting an
inflow of allochthonous hydrocarbons from underlying units.
413
Summary
To compare the distributions of TOC content in the different
stratigraphic units histograms were plotted (Fig. 7a), annotated
with categories of source quality and corresponding percentages of
samples. To obtain more realistic HI distribution for the
stratigraphic units studied a way was needed to indirectly estimate
HI values for those samples which showed TOC values below a
pyrolysis cut-off value (0.5 wt% in our case). For this purpose,
linear fit functions found on the measured pairs of TOC and HI
values were used. Using the measured and the predicted HI values
together, new histograms were plotted and annotated with
percentages of oil and gas to be generated (Fig. 7b).
Summing up the results of the pyrolysis study it should be
noted that none of the considered sedimentary units can be placed
into a source rock category based only on average geochemical
parameters. However, oil generative horizons (from TOC and HI
values) are most frequent in the Oligocene— Miocene interval.
On the whole the relatively modest source potential of the
sediments in the SCB is compensated for by their great thickness
and predominantly shaly content (up to 90%), as well as by the
high oil expulsion efficiency due to formation of large volumes of
gas concurrent with oil generation. These circumstances appear to
explain the great hydrocarbon resources discovered here.
MATURITY
Detailed evaluation of OM thermal conversion was beyond the
scope of the present paper. However, taking into consideration
that without these data source rock information would be
incomplete, a generalized appraisal of organic maturity is given
based on the parameters of Tmax, Ro, TAI and SCI. The most
representative among datasets is that of Tmax (n=272), though a
considerable number of determinations were available of Ro
(110), TAI and SCI (92). Analysis of the data from individual
stratigraphic intervals graphically (Fig. 8) revealed a good
agreement between the maturity parameters. All intervals, except
for the Jurassic, have undergone thermal stress inadequate for
decomposition of OM, i.e. are immature with respect to
hydrocarbon generation. It should be noted that Jurassic samples
came from the north slope of the Greater Caucasus, an area in a
geological province outside the limits of the SCB — the Caspian
margin—Guba foredeep. The younger sediments were sampled
within the Shamakhy—Gobustan superimposed trough. Vitrinite
reflectance versus depth profiles were examined on core samples
collected from the Miocene interval of two fields, West Duvanny
and Solakhay (located close to the coastline); they demonstrate
the immature state of the sediments down to as deep as 4500 m
(Fig. 9) and probably deeper with respect to oil generation. In
earlier work (Wavrek et al. 1996) we have documented the
immaturity of the penetrated offshore Productive Series section,
with Ro values at 5300 m of less than 0.6%.
ISOTOPE COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER
AND OIL-SOURCE CORRELATION
There is a clear differentiation between the carbon isotope
Diatom sediments contains considerably heavier δ13C (less
compositions of pre-Diatom and Diatom OM. Kerogen from the
negative) than the respective values for older parts of the
sedimentary section. From the Oligocene to Miocene the tendency
for an enrichment of OM with 13C is obvious (Table 2 & Fig.
10a). Abrams & Narimanov (1997) presented similar evidence
for saturate and aromatic fractions in rock
Fig. 7. Histograms of (a) TOC and (b) HI for different units of the sedimentary fill. Vertical scales: frequency %. Classification of organic matter according to categories of
Peters (1986).
 Source potential in the South Caspian Basin 415

Fig. 8. Maturity status of organic matter in different units of the South Caspian Basin for pyrolysis-based (Tmax) and optical (Ro, TAI, SCI)
parameters.

extracts from the Oligocene—Miocene rocks. Therefore, multiple depleted in 13C compared to source kerogen (Omokawa 1985;

give rise to differing δ13C values in reservoired oils, as reported in

source intervals within the Oligocene—Miocene sequence will Peters & Moldowan 1993), OM in the Miocene (Upper Maykop
and Diatom Suite) is inferred to have a dominant role as a source
our earlier work (Guliyev et al. 2000b). for the Productive Series oils.
By isotopically correlating the Productive Series oils with A close source-to-oil relationship between the Miocene rocks
kerogen from different intervals of the Oligocene—Miocene (Fig. (Diatom, Chokrak and Upper Maykop) and oils reservoired in the
10b) one can assess the participation of the pre-Pliocene sediments Productive Series is suggested from a cross-plot of carbon isotopic
in the formation of the oil pools in the Productive Series. Taking signatures of aromatic and aliphatic fractions in rock extracts and
into consideration that oil is normally 0.5—1.5‰ oils (Fig. 11). A group of the Oligocene points with appreciably
lighter isotopic composition on both fractions is distinct from the
Lower Pliocene reservoired oils, whereas source samples from the
Diatom and Chokrak are the closest to them. This evidence is
suggestive that oils accumulated in the Productive Series have been
sourced from Miocene sediments.
Contributions to the oil charge from different stratigraphic levels
are variable from one part of the basin to another: towards the
basinal deeps the share of oils supplied from the Diatom Suite
becomes greater, whereas the share supplied from the Lower
Miocene is higher in flank zones (Guliyev et al. 2000a).

Table 2. Data summary for carbon isotope composition of kerogen (‰, PDB) contained in
the stratigraphic intervals of the South Caspian Basin

Stratigraphic unit Minimum Mean Maximum

Diatom -25.25 -23.63 -21.53

Maykop -28.24 -26.48 -24.15

Cretaceous -27.22 -25.63 -24.05

Fig. 9. Vitrinite reflectance versus depth profile for the Miocene rock Jurassic -27.35 -26.33 -25.27
samples from the West Duvanny and Solakhay oil fields,
documenting the immature state of the organic matter with respect to
oil generation.
416 A.. A.. Feyzullayev et al.

Fig. 11. Source-to-oil correlation using carbon isotope ratios:

aliphatic vs. aromatic fraction of rock extracts and oils.

DISCUSSION: SUPPLIES OF OIL AND GAS

The mean values of pyrolysis hydrogen index imply that none of
the studied stratigraphic units can be fully classed as oil-prone
sediments, for almost 70—90% of their section is capable of
generating only gas and the remainder oil and gas together. Using
these data, even in the Oligocene—Lower Miocene sediments
(Maykop Series), assigned by nearly all workers to an oil source
category, only 10—20% of the section has effective oil-forming
capacity. The δ13C-based source-to-oil correlation suggests that the
major contribution to the formation of oil accumulations in the
Productive Series has been made by the upper part of the Maykop
Series (i.e. Lower Miocene).
In connection with the above observations two principal
questions arise.
(1) What is the explanation for the Productive Series containing
so much oil when the oil-generative potential of the
sedimentary package is apparently so low?
(2) With such a high gas generative capacity in the section, how
is the lack of purely gas accumulations on the flank of the
basin explained?
In the light of present-day knowledge the authors see the
answers to these questions in the following way. The balance
between generated and accumulated oil volumes becomes more
convincing assuming, firstly, contributions to the oil pools in the
Productive Series have come not only from Upper Maykop
sediments, but also from Miocene rocks, and even the lowermost
strata of the Productive Series itself, which contain,
_____________________________________________________

ranges and mean values of δ13C in kerogen of different age rocks; (b)
Fig. 10. Source-to-oil correlation using carbon isotope ratios: (a)

comparison of the kerogen occurring in different intervals of the

Oligocene—Miocene sediments with the Lower Pliocene reservoired oils.
 Source potential in the South Caspian Basin
though not frequently, intervals with good oil-forming potential
(see Table 1). In that case a thicker sequence of sediments will be
involved in the oil formation process. In this connection it is
pertinent to note that, in the central most subsided part of the
basin, the thickness of the Productive Series alone reaches 5 km,
and that of the Paleogene—Miocene strata is 6—8 km. Secondly, a
high expulsion efficiency can be suggested owing to considerable
volumes of gas generated both within the oil window, together
with liquid hydrocarbons and at more advanced stages of organic
matter conversion. The dissolution of oil in these gases increases
the efficiency of migration of hydrocarbons out of shales into more
permeable rocks. The movement of fluids can also be favoured by
the periodic vibrations of sediments associated with
seismotectonic processes in the sedimentary fill.
The high degree of seismicity of the region, the shallow focal
depths of the majority of earthquakes (10—25 km) and the
development of extensive networks of active faults may explain
the lack of gas accumulations at shallow depths in flank areas of
the basin. As the major regional reservoir plunges towards the
basinal centre, the tightness of the covering layers increases and
therefore oil fields are replaced by gas and gas-condensate ones.
CONCLUSION
Geochemical study of sedimentary rocks of the SCB suggests that
the source rocks there are characterized by moderate genetic
hydrocarbon potential. However, in the thick section comprising
many stratigraphic units there are horizons with good oil source
properties. They are particularly frequent in the Oligocene and
Miocene. In this connection, as well as allowing for their great
thickness, predominantly argillaceous content and the tendency
for an improved source facies down the regional dip of these strata
under the thick Pliocene—Quaternary complex, where major
hydrocarbon resources are concentrated, they can be considered
as a key source sequence in the SCB.
Considering all the organic maturity indicators (Tmax, Ro, TAI
and SCI), the rock samples examined from the onshore northwest
SCB are characterized by low degree of organic matter
conversion, with the exception of the Jurassic sediments. Thermal
conditions favourable for realization of the genetic hydrocarbon
potential of the assumed Oligocene—Miocene oil source rocks
should be expected in the central most subsided part of the basin.
Carbon isotopic correlation of source-to-oil suggests that the
Miocene interval (Diatom, Chokrak and Upper Maykop strata)
has played a major role in formation of commercial oil
accumulations in the Lower Pliocene Productive Series — the key
reservoir of the SCB. Along with this, formation of oil within the
Productive Series itself, particularly in the lower portion, cannot
be ruled out; however, this is the subject of a further, ongoing,
special study.
It also counts in favour of assignment of the Miocene strata as
the principal source rocks that the thickness of these sediments
reaches around 3000 m and that they have a predominantly shaly
content and therefore a limited reservoir capacity. With such
conditions, upon filling available reservoirs in the Miocene strata,
excess hydrocarbons have migrated upward through fault/fracture
systems into the overlying Productive Series. Gas generated
concurrent with oil in the strata containing type 2/3 kerogen
seems to favour high efficiency of hydrocarbon expulsion from
these deposits.
As the major reservoir plunges towards the depocentre of the
basin, oil accumulations give way to gas-condensate and gas.
Received 21 June 1999; revised typescript accepted 20 February 2001.
417
Ample gas content of the deep subsurface is confirmed by wide
occurrence of mud volcanoes in the basin, releasing yearly into
the atmosphere huge amounts of methane-dominated gas both in
periods of quiescent activity and during eruption.
Based on the above conclusions we can be confident that
further exploration for hydrocarbons in the deep-water South
Caspian will result in discovery of large gas and gas-condensate
accumulations.
The authors are grateful to Drs R. Archer and N. Bailey, with whom
they closely co-operated at different stages of performing the studies.
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