Addictive Behaviors 107 (2020) 106383

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Addictive Behaviors
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addictbeh

Mobile phone addiction and cognitive failures in daily life: The mediating T
roles of sleep duration and quality and the moderating role of trait self-
regulation
⁎
Wei Honga, Ru-De Liua, , Yi Dingb, Xiaotian Shenga, Rui Zhenc
a
Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University), Faculty
of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
b
Graduate School of Education, Fordham University, New York, NY 10023, USA
c
Institute of Psychological Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China

H I GH L IG H T S

• Mobile phone addiction (MPA) is positively associated with cognitive failures in daily life.
• Sleep quality (but not sleep duration) mediates the association between MPA and daily cognitive failures.
• Self-regulation capacity moderates the second stage of the mediation process.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Previous studies have reported well-documented findings that mobile phone addiction (MPA) is associated with
Mobile phone addiction negative emotion-related consequences; however, sporadic research has investigated the associations between
Daily cognitive failures MPA and cognitive outcomes related to daily cognitive functioning. Sleep duration, sleep quality, and trait self-
Sleep duration and quality regulation are thought to be linked to this association. The present study aimed to examine the mediating roles of
Trait self-regulation
sleep duration and quality and the moderating role of trait self-regulation between MPA and daily cognitive
Moderated mediation model
failures. A total of 1721 secondary school students were recruited to complete four self-reported questionnaires.
The model results indicated that sleep quality (but not sleep duration) partially mediated the association be-
tween MPA and daily cognitive failures, and high levels of trait self-regulation could attenuate the potential
impact of MPA on daily cognitive failures through sleep quality. Overall, these findings address the issue of how
and when MPA is linked with cognitive performance in daily life, which can advance a better understanding of
the negative consequences induced by MPA. Limitations and implications are discussed.

1. Introduction
Mobile phone use has expanded considerably over the past several
years. According to the 44th China statistical report on Internet de-
velopment, by the end of June 2019, China had accumulated 847
million mobile phone users, accounting for 99.1% of Chinese Internet
users (CNNIC, 2019). The pervasiveness of mobile phones may be due
in part to the numerous benefits, such as providing continuous con-
nectivity, daily convenience, diverse information, self-enhancement
and self-entertainment (Elhai, Dvorak, Levine, & Hall, 2017; Lepp,
2014). However, one of the commonly expressed concerns is that mo-
bile phones attract a large number of adolescents to engage in using in
inappropriate ways (Sapacz, Rockman, & Clark, 2016). Such maladap-
tive behaviors have been described as mobile phone addiction (MPA,
also known as problematic mobile phone use), which refers to several
aspects of addiction symptoms, including tolerance, withdrawal,
craving, loss of control, and negative life consequences (Foerster, Roser,
Schoeni, & Röösli, 2015).
Numerous previous studies have established the associations be-
tween MPA and negative emotion-related consequences, such as feel-
ings of loneliness (Phu & Gow, 2019; Usta, Korkmaz, & Kurt, 2014),
anxiety (Lepp, Barkley, & Karpinski, 2014), depression (R. D. Liu et al.,
2019; Seo, Park, Kim, & Park, 2016), and low life satisfaction (Li, Lepp,
& Barkley, 2015; Samaha & Hawi, 2016). However, sporadic research

⁎
Corresponding author at: Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Beijing 100875, China.
E-mail address: rdliu@bnu.edu.cn (R.-D. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106383
Received 3 October 2019; Received in revised form 1 March 2020; Accepted 3 March 2020
Available online 05 March 2020
0306-4603/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Hong, et al.
has investigated the relation between MPA and cognitive outcomes
related to daily functioning. One of the very few studies found that MPA
correlated with cognitive failures in daily life, but its underlying me-
chanism still remained unknown (Hadlington, 2015). Incorporating
sleep-related indices (e.g., sleep duration and sleep quality) and trait
self-regulation has been suggested to help to explain how and when
MPA is associated with cognitive function (Cain & Gradisar, 2010;
Diestel, Rivkin, & Schmidt, 2015). Considering that adolescents are
relatively vulnerable to MPA than other age groups (Lopez-Fernandez,
Honrubia-Serrano, Freixa-Blanxart, & Gibson, 2014), the present study
aimed to focus on adolescent group and to examine the relationship
between MPA and cognitive failures in daily life, the mediating roles of
sleep duration and quality, and the moderating role of trait self-reg-
ulation.
1.1. MPA and daily cognitive functioning
MPA has been identified to be positively associated with cognitive
failures in daily life (Hadlington, 2015). In particular, cognitive failures
refer to cognitive-based errors during ongoing tasks that an individual
should be competent in (Wallace, Kass, & Stanny, 2002). Given that
daily activities require relatively few but sustainable cognitive re-
sources, failures sometimes occur, such as poor memory (e.g., forget
where something like a newspaper or a book is placed), distractibility
(e.g., start doing one thing at home and get distracted into doing
something else), and blunders (e.g., unintentionally bump into people).
These daily failures reflect a lapse of cognitive processing (Hadlington,
2015).
Specific to the effect of MPA, addicts tend to have attentional bias to
addiction-related stimuli (Field & Cox, 2008). Balconi, Venturella, and
Finocchiaro (2017) used behavioral responses and Event-related Po-
tentials and found that adolescents who scored higher in Internet ad-
diction (IA) exhibited higher attentional values to IA-related cues. That
is, for mobile phone addicts, phones can be considered as high-priority
but irrelevant stimuli while people are concentrating on ongoing tasks
in daily life. During this process, mobile phones as a distractor may
occupy cognitive resources and narrow attentional breadth, leading to
poor performance (Thornton, Faires, Robbins, & Rollins, 2014). For
instance, in the work settings, addictive users have reported more in-
terferences from their mobile phones, which further adversely influ-
ences their daily performance (Duke & Montag, 2017). Numerous em-
pirical studies have shown that MPA significantly predicts increased
daytime dysfunction (Demirci, Akgonul, & Akpinar, 2015) and daily
cognitive failures among adolescents (Hadlington, 2015; He & Xia,
2019). Review of the above literature reveals that MPA may be posi-
tively associated with cognitive failures in daily life.
1.2. Sleep duration and quality as mediators
Excessive digital technology (including mobile phone) use has been
proposed to be indirectly associated with decreased cognitive perfor-
mance through the mediating role of sleep status (Adams & Kisler,
2013; Cain & Gradisar, 2010). Sleep duration and sleep quality are the
two most commonly used indicators to reflect sleep status in the sleep-
related studies, and they are considered to be correlated but distinct
concepts (Sheng et al., 2018). According to the perspective of bedtime
procrastination, engaging in leisure activities at nigh is a major factor
for bedtime procrastination, which contributes to insufficient sleep
(Kroese, Evers, Adriaanse, & de Ridder, 2016; Kroese, Nauts,
Kamphorst, Anderson, & de Ridder, 2016). Mobile phone use as a ty-
pical leisure activity that features unstructured time-profile may post-
pone bedtime routine and influence sleep status, as described in the
hypothesis of sleep displacement (Exelmans & van den Bulck, 2017).
Heavy mobile phone users have reported frequent night-time use,
which directly delays sleep time and shortens sleep duration (Gamble
et al., 2014; Harada, Morikuni, Yoshii, Yamashita, & Takeuchi, 2002).
2
Addictive Behaviors 107 (2020) 106383
They have also reported being woken up by mobile phones after they
fall asleep, which interferes with sleep depth and reduce sleep quality
(Adams & Kisler, 2013). In addition to the above behavioral symptoms,
night-time mobile phone use activates ruminative thoughts and in-
creases emotional involvement before sleep (Liu et al., 2017; Woods &
Scott, 2016). Such psychological arousal could engender difficulties in
falling asleep and refreshing sleep (Gradisar et al., 2013). These find-
ings suggest that MPA seems to be associated with shorter sleep dura-
tion and poorer sleep quality.
Regarding the association between sleep and cognitive failures,
sleep as a restorative mechanism influences performance in cognition-
demanding activities (Barber, Grawitch, & Munz, 2013; Hajali,
Andersen, Negah, & Sheibani, 2019). Rest, such as sleep, has been
found to assist in replenishing depleted cognitive resources (Tyler &
Burns, 2008). Experimental studies have revealed that sleep deprivation
impairs cognitive functioning, such as deficits in attention and memory
(Ahmad & Bashir, 2017; Lim & Dinges, 2010). Such effects may also
occur in daily life. Previous studies endorsed this notion and showed
that sleep loss significantly predicted increased daytime sleepiness
(Curcio, Ferrara, & De Gennaro, 2006) and daily cognitive failures
(Wilkerson, Boals, & Taylor, 2011). Taken together, evidence has
identified the mediating effect of sleep in the associations between
mobile phone overuse and daytime work engagement (Lanaj, Johnson,
& Barnes, 2014), and daily cognitive failures (He & Xia, 2019; Xanidis &
Brignell, 2016). Based on the above findings, it seems that sleep dura-
tion and quality may mediate the association between MPA and cog-
nitive failures in daily life.
1.3. Trait self-regulation as a moderator
Trait self-regulation refers to a broad range of psychological pro-
cesses in response to behaviors throughout the course of daily life
(Hakun & Findeison, 2020). It has a multi-faceted construct and can be
regarded as a stable capacity in attentional focusing, and activational
and inhibitory control, which correlates with personality traits (e.g.,
conscientiousness and emotional stability) (Moutafi, Furnham, &
Paltiel, 2005). As known, trait self-regulation is associated with state
self-regulation (similar to self-control) in which state self-regulation as
a proximate factor in cognitive functioning is nested in trait self-reg-
ulation that reflects the “size” of resource reserves (Hagger, 2009).
Overall, trait self-regulation not only directly influences behavioral and
cognitive performance, but also may play a moderating role in the
processes (Dvorak & Simons, 2009; Wills et al., 2010).
Cognitive control and trait self-regulation have been found to in-
teractively promote positive outcomes (Hakun & Findeison, 2020). As
mentioned earlier, MPA as irrelevant distractor may occupy cognitive
resources and influence information processing, leading to frequent
cognitive failures in daily life (Hadlington, 2015; He & Xia, 2019). This
process seems to be moderated by individual differences in trait self-
regulation. High levels of trait self-regulation indicate extensive psy-
chological resource reserves, which may buffer the effect of MPA on
daily cognitive failures. Indirect evidence supported this notion and
showed that cognitive resources consumption increases the interference
effect caused by distractors in selective attention tasks (Lavie, Hirst, de
Fockert, & Viding, 2004). This suggested that people with a high level
of trait self-regulation have more cognitive resources and can process
more information, thus they might be less likely to be interfered by
distractors (e.g., mobile phones relative to daily information). In other
words, compared with adolescents with a low level of trait self-reg-
ulation, adolescents with a high level of trait self-regulation may exhibit
fewer daily cognitive lapses although they might suffer from MPA.
Furthermore, trait self-regulation may moderate the mediating path
from MPA to daily cognitive failures via sleep status. Concerning the
first stage of the link, the association between mobile phone use and
sleep was not immutable and may vary with individual differences
(Exelmans & Van den Bulck, 2016). As stated earlier, frequent mobile
W. Hong, et al.
phone use is related to bedtime procrastination, which contributes to
insufficient sleep (Kroese, Nauts et al., 2016). It is known that people
with high levels of trait self-regulation tend to have better time-man-
agement skills and exhibit more adaptive behaviors (Zhao et al., 2019);
thus, they seem less likely to postpone bedtime although they might use
mobile phones excessively. Lian, Liu, Sun, and Zhou (2018) found that
trait self-regulation could buffer the adverse influence of MPA on
general procrastination among adolescents. Considering that bedtime
procrastination is one manifestation of general procrastination, and it is
highly correlated with general procrastination (Kroese, De Ridder,
Evers, & Adriaanse, 2014), trait self-regulation may play a similar
buffer role in the association between MPA and sleep status. That is,
compared with addictive mobile phone users with a low level of trait
self-regulation, users with a high level of trait self-regulation may have
a healthier sleep pattern with enough duration and quality.
Similarly, the association between sleep and cognitive performance
has been argued to vary with the differences in task and individual
characteristics (Kyle et al., 2017; Lim & Dinges, 2010). In particular,
self- (relative to external-) control was found to moderate the effect of
sleep on cognitive performance (Lim & Dinges, 2010). Job control refers
to individuals’ perception of the sense of freedom and control in
workplace, which provides employees with positive psychological re-
sources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). It has been found that high job
control attenuates the adverse effect of ego-depletion induced by sleep
loss and night-time mobile phone use on daily work performance (Lanaj
et al., 2014). This conditional effect of sleep status may be applicable to
daily issues. The association between poor sleep quality and daily
cognitive failures has been found to be moderated by emotional stabi-
lity (He & Xia, 2019). Emotional stability can be defined as a general
success of emotion regulation and correlates with trait self-regulation
(Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Eggum, 2010; McCrae & Lckenhoff, 2010),
which implies that trait self-regulation may have a similar moderating
effect between sleep and cognitive performance. Taken together, trait
self-regulation seems to moderate the direct and indirect associations
between MPA and cognitive failures in daily life.
1.4. The present study
Based on the above literature, it appears to be a positive association
between MPA and cognitive failures in daily life. In sporadic research
that has explored the underlying mechanisms between MPA and daily
cognitive failures, it is suggested that sleep duration and quality play a
mediating role, and trait self-regulation plays a moderating role during
the process. As an integrated model, the present study was guided by
the following hypotheses (see Fig. 1):
H1: MPA is positively associated with cognitive failures in daily life.
H2: Sleep duration and quality mediates the relation between MPA
and daily cognitive failures.
H3: Trait self-regulation moderates the direct association.
Specifically, MPA has a weaker association with daily cognitive
Fig. 1. Conceptual framework of mobile phone addiction and daily cognitive failures with sleep duration and quality as mediators and trait self-regulation as a
moderator.
3
Addictive Behaviors 107 (2020) 106383
failures among adolescents with a high level of trait self-regulation,
in comparison to those with a low level of trait self-regulation.
H4: Trait self-regulation moderates the mediation processes.
Specifically, MPA has weaker associations with sleep duration and
quality, which in turn have weaker associations with daily cognitive
failures among adolescents with a high level of trait self-regulation,
in comparison to those with a low level of trait self-regulation.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants were 1721 students (53.4% girls) who were recruited
from three regular secondary schools in Beijing and Hunan Provinces,
China, with an age range from 11 to 17 years (M = 13.34, SD = 1.62).
Among these participants’ parents, 34.6% of the fathers and 38.0% of
the mothers obtained a high school level of education or below, and
65.4% of the fathers and 62.0% of the mothers received an under-
graduate degree or above. All participants reported having one constant
Internet-accessible mobile phone.
2.2. Procedures
The materials and procedures obtained approval from the Academic
Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology at Beijing Normal
University. Written informed consents and assent forms were obtained
from the participating students. They were informed that their re-
sponses to questionnaires would be kept anonymous and confidential,
and the collected data would be used for academic research only. The
trained research assistants distributed and collected the questionnaires.
It took approximately 20 min to complete the self-reported ques-
tionnaires.
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Mobile phone addiction
Adolescents’ degree of mobile phone addiction was assessed by a
Chinese version of the short form of the Mobile Phone Problem Use
Scale (Foerster et al., 2015; Hong et al., 2019). The scale has 10 items
with five aspects, including craving (e.g., I have used my mobile phone
to make myself feel better when I was feeling down), withdrawal (e.g., I
feel anxious if I have not checked for messages or switched on my
mobile phone for some time), peer dependence (e.g., If I don’t have a
mobile phone, my friends would find it hard to get in touch with me),
loss of control (e.g., I find myself engaged on the mobile phone for
longer periods of time than intended), and negative life consequences
(e.g., I am often late for appointments because I’m engaged on the
mobile phone when I shouldn’t be). Participants rated the items on a 5-
point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree),
with higher scores indicating more severe mobile phone addiction. The
results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the structural
W. Hong, et al. Addictive Behaviors 107 (2020) 106383

Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations.
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Gender 1.53 0.50 –

2. Age 13.34 1.62 0.10*** –
3. MPA 2.32 0.77 0.08** 0.26*** –
4. Sleep duration 451.60 69.70 −0.16*** −0.38*** −0.15*** –
5. Sleep quality 4.55 1.11 −0.01 0.01 −0.21*** 0.17*** –
6. Self-regulation 3.57 0.57 −0.06* −0.15*** −0.45*** 0.18*** 0.26*** –
7. Cognitive failures 1.45 0.83 0.08** 0.02 0.36*** −0.15*** −0.35*** −0.44*** –

Note. Gender (1 = male, 2 = female); MPA = Mobile phone addiction.

* p < 0.05.
** p < 0.01.
*** p < 0.001.

validity, χ2/df = 9.56, the comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.95, the
Tucker-Lewis fit index (TLI) = 0.92, the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA) = 0.07, and the standardized root-mean-
square residual (SRMR) = 0.04. Additionally, Cronbach’s α for the
scale in this study was 0.83.
2.3.2. Sleep duration and sleep quality
Sleep duration was measured by a validated Chinese version of the
Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (X. Liu et al., 1996). Participants reported
recent average night sleep duration, distinct from time of lying in bed.
Sleep quality was assessed by a scale for estimating sleep problems
(Jenkins, Stanton, Niemcryk, & Rose, 1988). Participants reported fre-
quency (e.g., How often do you have trouble falling asleep) on a 6-point
Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 6 (always). After some items
were reverse-scored, higher scores indicate better sleep quality. The
CFA results supported the structural validity, χ2/df = 19.78,
CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.10, SRMR = 0.02. Additionally,
Cronbach’s α for the scale in this study was 0.71.
2.3.3. Trait self-regulation
Adolescents’ trait self-regulation was assessed by an adapted version
of a subscale of the Early Adolescent Temperament Scale which has
been verify to fit to a Chinese context (Capaldi & Rothbart, 1992; Li,
Zhou, Li, & Zhou, 2016). The subscale has 16 items with a three-aspect
construct, including activation (e.g., If I have a hard assignment to do, I
get started right away), impulsivity (e.g., It’s hard for me not to open
presents before I'm supposed to), and attention (e.g., It is easy for me to
fully concentrate on homework problems). Items were rated on a 5-
point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely
agree), with higher scores indicating a higher level of trait self-regula-
tion. The CFA results supported the structural validity, χ2/df = 6.99,
CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.05. Additionally,
Cronbach’s α for the scale in this study was 0.80.
2.3.4. Cognitive failures in daily life
The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire is a validated inventory to
measure individuals’ cognitive failures in daily life (Broadbent, Cooper,
FitzGerald, & Parkes, 1982; Wallace et al., 2002). It has 25 items con-
sisting of four subdimensions, including memory (e.g., Do you find you
forget where you put something like a newspaper or a book), dis-
tractibility (e.g., Do you start doing one thing at home and get dis-
tracted into doing something else), blunders (e.g., Do you bump into
people unintentionally), and names (e.g., Do you fail to listen to peo-
ple’s names when you are meeting them). Participants reported fre-
quency on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (always),
with higher scores indicating more frequent cognitive failures in daily
life. The CFA results supported the structural validity, χ2/df = 8.91,
CFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.04. Additionally,
Cronbach’s α for the scale in this study was 0.95.
2.4. Data analyses
Descriptive statistics and correlations were calculated using SPSS
19.0. The analyses of the hypothetical mediating roles of sleep duration
and quality, and the moderating role of trait self-regulation, were
conducted using PROCESS macro (http://www.afhayes.com) (Hayes,
2013). Additionally, a bias-corrected bootstrapping method was used to
further examine the significance of mediating and moderating effects,
whose 95% confidence interval did not contain zero indicating a salient
effect (Hayes, 2013).
3. Result
3.1. Preliminary analyses
Considering the data collection was based on subjective self-re-
ported questionnaires, there might be some covariation, suggesting it
should be tested with the common method bias. According to Harman’s
single factor test, all items were fixed on one factor and the CFA results
showed an unacceptable model fit, χ2/df = 11.22, CFI = 0.60,
TLI = 0.58, RMSEA = 0.08, SRMR = 0.08. This indicated that there
was no serious common method bias (Zhou & Long, 2004).
Means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlations were calcu-
lated. As shown in Table 1, gender was correlated with MPA, sleep
duration, self-regulation, and daily cognitive failures. Age was corre-
lated with MPA, sleep duration, and self-regulation. It suggested that
gender and age should be regarded as covariates in the next stage of
analyses. Main variables (i.e., MPA, sleep duration and quality, self-
regulation, and daily cognitive failures) were correlated with each other
(|r| from 0.15 to 0.45, p < 0.001).
3.2. Testing for the hypothetical model
First, to examine Hypothesis 1, a direct model of MPA and cognitive
failures in daily life was formulated. The results showed that MPA
positively predicted daily cognitive failures after controlling for the
effects of gender and age (β = 0.38, p < 0.001), supporting
Hypothesis 1.
Second, a mediation model with sleep duration and quality as
mediators was built using the PROCESS macro (Model No. 4) (Hayes,
2013). As displayed in Table 2, MPA did not significantly predict sleep
duration (β = −0.05, p = 0.06 > 0.05), although sleep duration
predicted daily cognitive failures (β = −0.09, p < 0.001). Whereas,
MPA negatively predicted sleep quality (β = −0.24, p < 0.001),
which in turn negatively predicted daily cognitive failures (β = −0.26,
p < 0.001). Furthermore, the 95% confidence interval of the indirect
effect of sleep duration ranged from −0.001 to 0.01 (including zero),
and the indirect effect of sleep quality ranged from 0.04 to 0.08 (not
including zero). These findings indicated that sleep quality (but not
sleep duration) partially mediated the relation between MPA and daily

4
W. Hong, et al. Addictive Behaviors 107 (2020) 106383

Table 2
The mediation model of sleep duration and sleep quality between MPA and daily cognitive failures.
Predictors Sleep duration Sleep quality Cognitive failures

β SE 95% CI β SE 95% CI β SE 95% CI

Constant 3.31***
0.20 [2.90, 3.71] −0.55* 0.22 [−0.98, −0.12] 0.61 **
0.22 [0.18, 0.22]
Gender −0.22*** 0.05 [−0.31, −0.13] −0.02 0.05 [−0.12, 0.08] 0.08 0.05 [−0.01, 0.17]
Age −0.22*** 0.01 [−0.25, −0.19] 0.04** 0.02 [0.01, 0.08] −0.06*** 0.02 [−0.09, −0.03]
MPA −0.05 0.02 [−0.09, 0.01] −0.24*** 0.03 [−0.29, −0.19] 0.31*** 0.02 [0.27, 0.36]
Sleep duration −0.09*** 0.03 [−0.14, −0.04]
Sleep quality −0.26*** 0.02 [−0.31, −0.22]
R2 0.17 0.05 0.22
F 103.08 28.92 87.21

Note: Bootstrap sample size = 5000; MPA = Mobile phone addiction.

* p < 0.05.
** p < 0.01.
*** p < 0.001.

cognitive failures, partially supporting Hypothesis 2.

Third, trait self-regulation was hypothesized to moderate the med-
iating process of sleep. As shown above, only sleep quality significantly
mediated the association between MPA and daily cognitive failures.
After the variables were standardized, a moderated mediation model
with sleep quality as a mediator and trait self-regulation as a moderator
was established using the PROCESS macro (Model No. 59) (Hayes,
2013). As displayed in Table 3, the interaction term of MPA and trait
self-regulation did not predict daily cognitive failures (β = 0.03,
p = 0.10 > 0.05), not supporting Hypothesis 3. Additionally, the in-
teraction term of MPA and trait self-regulation did not significantly
predict sleep quality (β = 0.04, p = 0.06 > 0.05). However, the in-
teraction term of sleep quality and trait self-regulation significantly
predicted daily cognitive failures (β = 0.05, p = 0.02 < 0.05).
To further figure out the essence of the interaction effect, a simple
slope analysis was conducted. Participants were divided into two
counterparts (low level, M - SD; high level, M + SD) according to the
levels of the moderator (i.e., trait self-regulation). As illustrated in
Fig. 2, among adolescents with a low level of trait self-regulation, sleep
quality significantly predicted cognitive failures (β = −0.28, 95% CI
[−0.35, −0.22]). In contrast, among adolescents with a high level of
trait self-regulation, sleep quality also predicted daily cognitive failures
Fig. 2. Trait self-regulation moderates the relation between sleep quality and
(β = −0.18, 95% CI [−0.25, −0.12]), but the effect size became much
daily cognitive failures.
smaller. The mediating effect size decreased with the increase in the
level of trait self-regulation. That is, trait self-regulation moderated the
conditional effects from MPA to daily cognitive failures through sleep 4. Discussion
quality, partially supporting Hypothesis 4.
The present study complemented the previous research exclusively
focusing on the direct association between MPA and cognitive failures

Table 3
The moderated mediation model of trait self-regulation between MPA and daily cognitive failures through sleep quality.
Predictors Sleep quality Cognitive failures

β SE 95% CI β SE 95% CI

Constant −0.59 **
0.22 [−1.01, −0.16] 0.47* 0.20 [0.08, 0.85]
Gender −0.02 0.05 [−0.11, 0.08] 0.08 0.04 [−0.01, 0.17]
Age 0.05** 0.02 [0.02, 0.08] −0.04** 0.01 [−0.07, −0.02]
MPA −0.15*** 0.03 [−0.20, −0.09] 0.19*** 0.03 [0.14, 0.24]
Sleep quality (SLQ) −0.24*** 0.02 [−0.28, −0.19]
Self-regulation (S-R) 0.21*** 0.03 [0.16, 0.26] −0.30*** 0.03 [−0.35, −0.25]
MPA × S-R 0.04 0.02 [−0.01, 0.08] 0.03 0.02 [−0.01, 0.07]
SLQ × S-R 0.05* 0.02 [0.01, 0.09]
R2 0.09 0.29
F 30.94 86.43

Note: Bootstrap sample size = 5000; MPA = Mobile phone addiction.

* p < 0.05.
** p < 0.01.
*** p < 0.001.

5
W. Hong, et al.
in daily life. The results based on a large number of adolescents re-
vealed that sleep quality (not sleep duration) served as a potential
mediator, and trait self-regulation served as a potential moderator in
explaining how and when MPA was associated with cognitive failures in
daily life. In sum, these findings contribute to a better understanding of
negative outcomes induced by MPA from an integrated perspective,
which gives insights into buffering the adverse effect of addictive online
behaviors.
4.1. The relation between MPA and cognitive failures
The results showed that adolescents with higher mobile phone ad-
diction reported higher frequencies of cognitive failures in daily life,
and this direct association was not moderated by trait self-regulation.
That is, MPA is positively associated with daily cognitive failures re-
gardless of the level of trait self-regulation, which was consistent with
the previous research (Hadlington, 2015; He & Xia, 2019). With the fast
developing information technology, mobile phones play an increasingly
important role in every aspect of daily life; they even can be regarded as
a negotiable body (an extension of our physical selves) (Clayton,
Leshner, & Almond, 2015). Heavy mobile phone users get accustomed
to paying constant attention to mobile phones intentionally or unin-
tentionally. Biased attention to mobile phones may influence the pro-
cessing of daily information and lead to cognitive lapses. For instance,
some users reported habitually checking their mobile phones even if the
phones did not receive any new information (Saling & Haire, 2016).
This behavior interrupts concentration and undermines daily perfor-
mance although they might have enough available cognitive resources
(Duke & Montag, 2017). Furthermore, the presence of a mobile phone
regardless of whether it is being used reduces available cognitive ca-
pacities, especially for adolescents with high levels of MPA (Ward,
Duke, Gneezy, & Bos, 2017). These findings indicated that there was a
strong effect of mobile phones on cognitive performance. Therefore, it
seemed plausible that MPA had a stable association with cognitive
failures in daily life regardless of the level of trait self-regulation.
4.2. The mediating role of sleep duration and sleep quality
The results identified the mediating role of sleep quality in the as-
sociation between MPA and daily cognitive failures. Consistent with the
previous studies (He & Xia, 2019; Xanidis & Brignell, 2016), mobile
phone addiction was associated with decreased sleep quality and in-
creased cognitive failures in daily life. However, sleep duration was not
revealed to have a mediating effect between MPA and daily cognitive
failures. During this process, the indirect effect of this association was
mainly explained by sleep quality, supporting the notion that sleep
quality (relatively to sleep duration) plays a more influential role in
determining behaviors (Barnes, Lucianetti, Bhave, & Christian, 2015;
Sheng et al., 2018).
In particular, the mediating analyses showed that MPA did not
predict sleep duration, but MPA significantly predicted sleep quality,
although MPA was correlated with sleep duration and quality in
Pearson’s correlation analyses. The discrepancy may be partially due to
whether the covariates were taken into consideration. Because gender
and age were robustly correlated with sleep duration, but not correlated
with sleep quality, after adjusting for the effects of gender and age, it
was possible that MPA was not associated with sleep duration, but
significantly associated with sleep quality. These findings were con-
sistent with the extant findings (Exelmans & Van den Bulck, 2016). One
plausible explanation for the non-significant association between MPA
and sleep duration may be that adolescents in the developmental stage
are restricted on the amount of mobile phone use time, especially for
adolescents who have a history of excessive use (Chng, Li, Liau, & Khoo,
2015). For instance, Chinese parents may set mobile phone use rule and
limit use time (e.g., which time to switch the phone off and go to bed);
thus, adolescents may be compelled to sleep on time. A recent study
6
Addictive Behaviors 107 (2020) 106383
reported that Chinese junior middle school students under parental
supervision used mobile phone for less time on weekends and before
bedtime (Li, Zhuang, Jiang, & Xia, 2020), which implies that parental
restrictions on mobile phones use time may influence the weak asso-
ciation between MPA and sleep duration. Nevertheless, parental re-
strictions seem to play a relatively minor role in sleep quality because
they could still reflect on what happened on the mobile phone although
it had been switched off. It seemed possible that the more severe ad-
diction to mobile phones, the more ruminative thoughts and the worse
of the sleep quality (Liu et al., 2017). Future studies are warranted to
further explore the complicated relation between mobile phone use and
sleep.
4.3. The moderating role of trait self-regulation
The result showed that trait self-regulation did not moderate the
first stage of the mediating process of sleep quality. That is, MPA sig-
nificantly predicted sleep quality regardless of the level of trait self-
regulation. As mentioned earlier, increased self-regulation may assist in
managing time and behaviors, making it less likely to postpone bedtime
(Kroese, Evers et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2019). Despite this, addictive
users with more interaction with their mobile phones are more likely to
be passively woken up after they fall asleep (Adams & Kisler, 2013).
Moreover, bright light and electromagnetic radiation from mobile
phones interfere melatonin production and reduce sleep quality (Cain &
Gradisar, 2010). These mechanisms do not seem to be influenced by
individual differences in trait self-regulation. Thus, it seemed that there
was a stable association between MPA and sleep quality regardless of
the level of trait self-regulation.
One intriguing finding was that trait self-regulation moderated the
second stage of the mediating process of sleep quality. Specifically, the
conditional association between sleep quality and daily cognitive fail-
ures became weaker among adolescents with a high level of trait self-
regulation compared with those with a lower level of trait self-regula-
tion. This was in agreement with the previous findings that there may
be potential moderators between sleep status and cognitive perfor-
mance (Kyle et al., 2017; Lim & Dinges, 2010). Consistent with extant
research, adolescents with a high level of trait self-regulation tend to
have a large amount of resource reserves, which serves as a protective
factor to attenuate the adverse effect of poor sleep quality on cognitive
performance in daily life (He & Xia, 2019). Stated differently, although
poor sleep quality hinders resource recovery, reserved resources can be
used to process daily information and reduce the occurrence of tran-
sient brain overload. Once trait self-regulation is low, adolescents who
have poor sleep quality to replenish resources with fewer reserved re-
sources are more likely to exhibit cognitive lapses. In sum, it seemed
plausible that trait self-regulation moderated the effect of poor sleep
quality on cognitive failures in daily life.
4.4. Limitations, implications, and future directions
Several limitations to this study should be noted. First, a cross-
sectional design cannot contribute to causal inferences. Future research
could use a diary method to further explore the relationships among
these variables. For instance, mobile phone use can be recorded in the
evening (the first day), sleep status can be reported in the morning (the
next day), and cognitive failures can be assessed in the evening (the
next day) over a period of time (Lanaj et al., 2014). Second, data were
collected from self-reported questionnaires, which may produce some
response biases although our data did not have serious common method
bias. Future research can combine subjective reports with objective
record (e.g., mobile phone backstage to collect use time) and biome-
dical measures (e.g., actigraphy devices to gauge sleep patterns) to
triangulate the reliability and validity (Barber, Taylor, Burton, & Bailey,
2017; Sheng et al., 2018). Third, because we recruited only secondary
school students as participants, generalization of these findings to other
W. Hong, et al.
groups (e.g., adults) should be made with caution.
Despite these limitations, there are several theoretical and practical
implications. To our knowledge, this research was one of very few
studies to examine the relation between MPA and daily cognitive fail-
ures, which complemented the findings regarding the negative con-
sequences caused by MPA in addition to emotion-related outcomes.
With sleep status incorporated to build a mediation model, the indirect
effect supported the notion that sleep quality (relative to sleep dura-
tion) is more influential, which may help to explain the unique roles of
sleep indicators (Barnes et al., 2015). More important, the final mod-
erated mediation model identified the moderating role of trait self-
regulation and it provided empirical evidence to support the condi-
tional association between sleep and cognitive performance as a func-
tion of individual differences (Lim & Dinges, 2010). Altogether, this
study introduced behavioral factors and personality factors, and at-
tempted to interpret how and when MPA is associated with cognitive
functioning from an integrated perspective. These findings contribute to
a better understanding of the process of the cognition-related outcomes
induced by MPA.
In regard to practical implications for intervention, on the one hand,
we reiterate the importance of preventing excessive mobile phone use
in adolescents because excessive use can result in a wide array of un-
favorable outcomes, including maladaptive sleep hygiene and frequent
cognitive deficits in addition to poor mental health (e.g., anxiety and
depression). On the other hand, improving trait self-regulation can be
regarded as an instrumental procedure to buffer the negative effects of
MPA. Although trait self-regulation is somewhat stable, it is still
trainable and changeable through slow and long-term intervention
processes, particularly in the earlier stages of human development
(Oaten & Cheng, 2006).
Funding
This research was supported by the National Social Science Fund of
China (No. 17BSH102).
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Wei Hong: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis,
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Ru-De Liu:
Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding
acquisition. Yi Ding: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing.
Xiaotian Sheng: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing. Rui
Zhen: Investigation, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
Thanks for the support of the participating schools’ students and
teachers.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106383.
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