Lesson 1 TOPIC: Structure and Functions of Cells of the • Understand the functions of

Nervous System: Methods and Strategies of cells in the nervous systems,

Research brain development, and its
• General Development functional consequences
• Neural Development: Peripheral Nervous • Address embryological
System & Autonomic Nervous System development in general.
• Male and Female Brains
• Adolescent Development & Adult
Development
• Ethics in Research
• Animal research

Why This Lesson

The goal of the first lesson is to understand how cells in the nervous system work, how the brain grows, and how
that affects how it works. The brain is a very flexible organ that grows and changes over the course of a person's
life. We can now look at both normal and abnormal human development, even before a person is born, thanks
to new technologies. To understand how people act, we need to do research. To learn more about how people
act, researchers do carefully controlled experiments on people.

This chapter will first address embryological development in general. The making of the brain starts with sperm
and egg fusing, and its story goes through a developmental period from the prenatal stage to adulthood. The
chapter also addresses the critical stages of development of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and Autonomic
Nervous System (ANS). The differences between the male and female brains as a result of chromosomes and
hormones are discussed throughout this chapter. And finally, the chapter ends by exploring changes in the
structure of the brain in adolescents and adults and their consequences.

Research is a way to learn about how people act. We can only start to figure out how the brain works by doing
experiments on it. Animal studies can help find answers to questions that can't be answered any other way when
people can't be involved.

General Development

The cell assembles genetic material, and meiotic cell division results in the gametes that serve as the origin of
new life. A sperm and an egg (ovum) fuse to create a brain, possibly the most sophisticated organ in the universe.
This chapter will first discuss generic embryological development to gain a deeper grasp of development in utero.

Sperms travel from the acidic environment of the vagina, where ejaculation occurs, to the more friendly
environment of the uterus. The uterine tube's ampulla receives about 200 sperms. (Moore et al., 2012). Fertilisation
occurs at the ampulla over the course of 24 hours. After going through several phases, the sperm and the egg
must unite. The layers around the ovum must be crossed by the sperm (the corona radiata and zona pellucida).
The acrosome, which houses the enzymes needed to dissect the ovum's outer layers, is located at the tip of the
sperm. After overcoming these obstacles, the sperm leaves the cytoplasm of the ovum and its plasma membrane

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behind. An ootid is an ovum that has the same number of haploid chromosomes from both the sperm and the
ovum and is now home to both the female and male nuclei. When the nuclei join together, they make two sets
of chromosomes. This is called a zygote. The single cell of the zygote called the blastomere then starts to divide
in a process called cleavage. This makes new cells. When this mass of cells has been around for 4–6 days before
it is put into the uterus, it is called a blastocyst. The embryoblast is the mass of cells at the centre of the blastocyst.
It is made up of the stem cells that will become the adult human. There is also a group of cells around the baby
that become the placenta. By the end of the second week, the blastocyst has joined with the uterus.

The embryo quickly develops and expands after being successfully implanted into the uterine wall. On day 56,
the foetal phase begins, marking the end of the embryonic stage of development. The embryo is currently
referred to as a fetus and will stay so until birth. The embryonic cells proliferate and differentiate when a fetus is
developing. The Lifespan of Neural Development A lot of biopsychology textbooks put an emphasis on the very
first changes that occur during development in utero. The student frequently interprets developmental
psychology as pertaining to child development, as well. However, the brain continues to develop well into
adulthood, going beyond the embryological stage and the first few weeks after birth. From conception to death,
the brain goes through a lot of changes, but a good place to start is at the beginning. Trauma, deprivation, and
teratogens can all affect how the brain normally develops.

Embryonic Stem Cells Embryonic stem cells are taken from embryos that are between 4 and 5 days old (the
blastocyst phase of development). These embryos are formed during an in vitro fertilisation (IVF) procedure, in
which multiple eggs are fertilised in a test tube but only one is transplanted into a woman's uterus — for want of
a better phrase, these are referred to as spare embryos. After being removed from the blastocyst, the stem cells
are placed in a culture dish that has all of the components essential to their continued existence. In their natural
environment, stem cells do not have the circumstances necessary to differentiate, so instead, they divide and
multiply. Because they have not yet differentiated into more specialised cells, they have the potential to become
any kind of cell. These kinds of stem cells have been the focus of a great deal of debate.

The key question is when human life begins; this question is too broad for us to cover here but interested readers
might check out Steinbock's work for more information (2007). Stem Cells Derived from Adults Adult stem cells
can be found in the brain, which is important for psychobiologists. Adult stem cells stay dormant until disease or
tissue damage triggers their activation, at which point they become ready to take on the challenge at hand.
There is no limit to what stem cells can become. Directed differentiation can be used to help a stem cell line
specialise in a specific area once it has been established in culture, a process that is made easier with embryonic
stem cells. Thus, stem cells can be transformed into any type of cell. This science has the ability to change the
world.

Stem cells are grouped by their ability to change into other types of cells. They can be totipotent, which means
they can change into any type of cell, pluripotent, which means they can change into most types of cells,
multipotent, which means they can change into related types of cells, oligopotent, which means they can only
change into a few types of cells, or unipotent, which means they can only make cells of their own type (but can
self-renew). Stem cells are the way forward. Stem cells could be used to treat diseases that are very bad and
make people sick. Pluripotent stem cells make it possible to grow new cells that could be used to treat Parkinson's
disease or a spinal cord injury, for example. Several studies have looked at their preclinical and clinical uses in
Parkinson's disease (Badger et al., 2014; Kearns et al., 2006; Martinez Morales & Liste, 2012; Moriyasu et al., 2006),

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Alzheimer's disease (AbdelSalam, 2011; Young & Goldstein, 2012), strokes (Banerjee et al., 2011; Moriyasu et al.,
Hassani et al., 2012; Katare et al., 2013; Zhou, 2011), multiple sclerosis (Martino et al., 2010) and spinal injuries
(Sabelstrom et al., 2013).

Neural Development: Peripheral Nervous System & Autonomic Nervous System

From the earliest stages of embryogenesis to the last years of life, neural development is the process of how the
nervous system grows, changes, and grows again. The goal of the study of neural development is to explain how
the brain grows and develops at the cellular level and to figure out how that happens. Both neuroscience and
developmental biology are used in this field to figure out how cells and molecules work to make complex nervous
systems. Neurological disorders like autism, Rett syndrome, and mental retardation can all be caused by
problems with how the brain grows and develops.

Peripheral Nervous System

The nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord make up the peripheral nervous system. The CNS and
the various parts of the body communicate via this network of nerves. Peripheral nerves are divided into the
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system, respectively. Neurons of the somatic nervous system
are involved in conscious tasks, such as moving the skin and muscles. In the autonomic nervous system, the CNS
communicates with visceral organs including the heart, stomach, and intestines via nerve pathways that are part
of the CNS. Unconscious processes are mediated by it. Figure 1.1 shows the function of Peripheral Nervous System.

Figure 1.1: Function of Peripheral Nervous System

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The nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord are part of the peripheral nervous system. The two
parts of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
Each part of this system is very important to the way information is sent all over the body.

Each nerve is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath known as the epineurium. The perineurium, a layer of
connective tissue, surrounds each fasciculus, a bundle of nerve fibres. The endoneurium, a fibrous connective
structure, surrounds each nerve fibre in the fasciculus, protecting the myelin and neurilemma within. Blood vessels
may also be found within the connective tissue wrappings of a nerve.

There are two parts to the nervous system: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The
brain and spinal cord are part of the central nervous system (CNS). The peripheral nervous system is made up of
all the nerves that branch off from the brain and spinal cord and go to other parts of the body, such as muscles
and organs. The PNS connects the CNS to the organs, limbs, and skin. This is its main job. The nerves of the PNS
reach from the brain and spinal cord to the body's extremities. The peripheral system lets the brain and spinal
cord get information from and send it to other parts of the body. This lets us respond to things going on around
us.

The nerves that make up the peripheral nervous system are actually bundles of axons from nerve cells or neurons.
Some of these nerves are very small, while other nerve bundles are so big that you can see them with your own
eyes.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is an efferent system that sends motor impulses to the visceral organs. It innervates
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands automatically and continuously, without the person being aware of
it. It looks at the heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and other organ functions that
work together to keep homeostasis.

The two parts of the autonomic nervous system are sympathetic and the parasympathetic. Fibres from both
divisions reach a lot of the organs inside the body. In this case, one makes it go faster and the other slows it down.
This functional relationship between two things that are at odds with each other helps keep homeostasis in check.
Figure 1.2 shows the overview of the Autonomic Nervous System.

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 Figure 1.2: The overview of the Autonomic Nervous System.

The autonomic nervous system controls several processes in the body that happen without the person being
aware of them. The autonomic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls things like the
heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and digestion that you don't have to think about.

The sympathetic system, the parasympathetic system, and the enteric nervous system are the three parts of this
system:

• The third part of the autonomic nervous system is called the enteric nervous system, and it is only found in
the gastrointestinal tract.
• The parasympathetic part of the body's autonomic nervous system helps keep things running normally and
saves energy. This part also controls the bladder, slows down the heart rate, and makes the eye pupils
smaller, among other things.
• The flight-or-fight responses are controlled by the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system. This
part also does things like relax the bladder, speed up the heart rate, and make the eye pupils bigger.

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The autonomic nervous system works by getting information from the environment and from other parts of the
body. The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems usually work in opposite ways. One will speed up a
response while the other slows it down. In the past, people thought that stimulation happened through the
sympathetic system and that inhibition happened through the parasympathetic system. But there are many
cases where this isn't true.

Today, we think of the sympathetic system as a system that works quickly to get the body ready to act, while
the parasympathetic system is thought to work much more slowly to slow down responses. For example, the
sympathetic nervous system will work to raise blood pressure, while the parasympathetic nervous system will
work to lower it. The two systems work together to control how the body reacts based on the situation and what
it needs. For example, if you are in danger and need to run away, the sympathetic nervous system will quickly
get your body ready to act. Once the threat is gone, the parasympathetic system will start to slow down these
responses, slowly bringing your body back to its normal, resting state.

Male and Female Brains

Males and females have been different for a long time. Since the 1960s, they have always been a subject of
debate. Brain size is another thing that varies from person to person. Men's normal brain weight is 11 to 12 percent
higher than that of women's normal brain weight. Men have two percent bigger heads than women. This is
because men are becoming more powerful. Men have more muscle mass than women. So, men also have
bigger bodies, which means it takes more brain cells to control them. This information does not prove that women
are less smart than men because they have smaller brains. When it comes to how smart a person is, size doesn't
matter.

Men have about 4% more brain cells than women do. In terms of weight, males had more brain tissue than 0 kg.
These facts could help explain why women are more likely than men to get Alzheimer's disease or another form
of dementia. Even though both men and women may lose the same number of brain cells because of the
disorder, the functional balance is better for men because they have more brain cells. This can help keep some
functional problems from happening. More nerve cells are attached to the cerebral cortex of male cells, while
neuropils, or connections, have been made between the axons and dendrites of the cell bodies of females. This
structure makes it possible for brain cells to talk to each other.

A lot has been said about how the brains of men and women are different. Sometimes these differences are
blown out of proportion, but they are still there. This is one of those times when size doesn't matter. The X and Y
chromosomes and how they affect hormones in the womb are what make them different. Imaging studies have
shown that women's brains reach full size earlier than men's (Lenroot & Giedd, 2010). One thing to keep in mind
is that the differences between men and women change over time, with some parts of the male brain showing
more signs of aging than others (Coffey et al., 1998). At this point, it's important to note that sex hormones control
the way the brain is set up in a way that's good for sex (Arnold & Breedlove, 1985).

Some researchers say that men and women have different brain wiring. The wiring in a man's brain goes from
front to back, and there aren't many connections between the two sides. On the other hand, women's brains
are wired more from left to right, so the two sides work together better.

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Without getting into the details of how men's and women's brains are wired, researchers think that therefore men
and women have different strengths. So, even though we said that one sex is not better than the other in general,
we also said that each is better on average in some ways. Here are a few of the things they found:

• Men are better at performing single tasks; women are better at multitasking.
• Women are better at paying attention, remembering words, getting along with other people, and speaking.
• Men are better at processing space and moving quickly.
• Women are better at fine motor skills and remembering things from a long time ago.
• Faces are more important to women, and they remember them better than things.
• Men are better at seeing how a two-dimensional or three-dimensional shape rotates in space, figuring out
angles from the horizontal, keeping track of moving objects, and aiming projectiles.
• Men usually use dead reckoning to find their way. This means that they figure out where they are by looking
at the direction and distance they have traveled. Women are more likely to use landmarks.

The female brain also has more connections in the parts that help with social thinking and talking. That may be
why they are better at understanding how other people feel, have a better idea of what is going on around
them, and can describe things in more detail.

Men aren't as good at communicating because their verbal centers aren't as connected to their emotions and
memories. This may be why they're also less interested in talking to other people. During activities, the grey matter
in a man's brain is used a lot more than the white matter in a woman's brain. Men are thought to be better able
to focus on one task and ignore what's going on around them because of this difference, while women are better
able to switch between tasks.

Adolescent Development & Adult Development

When a teenager's brain is compared to that of a younger child, the amount of grey matter in the frontal and
parietal cortices is less, while the amount of white matter is more (Sowell, Thompson, Holmes, Batth, et al., 1999).
In a longitudinal study, Lenroot and Giedd (2006) found that the volume of grey matter in the frontal cortex
increased during childhood and early adolescence and then decreased during the rest of adolescence. The
same thing happened in the temporal lobe when the children were older (Giedd et al., 1999). Elizabeth Sowell
and her colleagues noticed that as the grey matter went down, the white matter went up, and this keeps
happening until the age of 30. (Sowell, Thompson, et al., 2001). Why thirty? Because that was how old the oldest
person in this study was. But in a later study, this increase was shown to be true up to the age of 60, and people
as old as 87 took part in this study (Sowell et al., 2003). These changes could be caused by the way the brain's
synapses change during adolescence and even into the 20s (Petanjek et al., 2011). It is known that there are a
lot of synapses that are then taken away in a specific way (Changeux & Danchin, 1976). During adolescence,
this cutting back or pruning may show up as less grey matter (Giedd et al., 1999, Sowell, Thompson, et al., 2001).

When you look at how the brain works and not just how it is built, you can see some interesting things about the
teenage brain. Many of the things that teens do that are typical of their age are thought to be caused by how
their brains are developing (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). Teenagers aren't known for being able to keep
themselves in check, and they're often seen as impulsive pleasure-seekers. There may be a good reason for this
in terms of how the brain works. Teenagers have less activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and more activity in the

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mesolimbic areas that control rewards (Ernst et al., 2005; Galvan et al., 2006). Hare et al. (2008) found that the
teen's amygdala was more active during emotional tasks. This may help explain how the average teen feels
about things (Casey et al., 2008).

As we said before, developmental psychology often focuses on children. However, as the population ages, the
business of caring for the elderly has become a growth industry. Research shows that the brain goes through big
changes before birth, in the first few years of life, and again when a person is a teenager. But what about getting
old? Does the brain keep getting worse after age 25?

A lot of research is being done to find out what happens to the brain over time. Most people's real-life experiences
show that cognitive functions change as we get older. Such age-related cognitive changes need to be
compared to changes in the brains of healthy people. This will help us figure out what is normal and what isn't. If
we know what's normal, we might be able to figure out what's wrong. But, interestingly, the head scientist of a
well-known drug company said that the company's new drug could be used to treat "age-related memory
deficits." This report is important because it shows some of the ethical problems that come up with neuroscience
and getting older. The question is whether or not we see normal ageing as a disease that can be treated.

In the last 20 years, there has been a lot more research on how people age because neuroimaging makes it
possible to look at how the brain changes in a living person. Because imaging technologies have gotten better,
we no longer have to wait until after death to learn about how the brain changes as it ages. Most of the time,
there are two types of methods used to study the ageing brain: cross-sectional and longitudinal. Cross-sectional
methods are useful for answering questions about ageing quickly because they look at groups of people of
different ages. So, instead of measuring changes in age, we can measure differences in age. Longitudinal studies
are useful because they can look at people at different points in their lives. Answers take longer to get, but they
do help find out how different people are. Another problem with the longitudinal study is getting participants to
work together, even if it's not in their power to do so. But even though the methods are different, the data about
the ageing process are the same (Sowell et al., 2003a).

Ethics in Research

Ethics in research gives researchers the ethical rules or guidelines they need to do their work well. Ethics in and
of itself refers to how right or wrong a person's actions are. In research, ethics provide guidelines for how to do
research in a responsible way. They also give researchers and scholars a chance to learn more and keep track
of what they do while doing research to make sure they are following high ethical standards.

There are right and wrong ways to do research, especially when it involves people and animals. For example,
Nazi Germany did several medical tests on a large number of people in concentration camps, including children.
Nazi doctors forced prisoners in a concentration camp to take part in the experiment. The prisoners did not want
to take part, and they did not give their permission for the procedures. Trauma, disfigurement, permanent
disabilities, and death were all caused by the experiments. Some of the most well-known experiments that Nazi
doctors did on prisoners were with sterilisation, fertilisation, and head injuries.

Honesty is one of the ethical principles that guide research. Researchers should be honest about the data and
results of their studies, including how they got the data and whether it has been published. Researchers shouldn't
lie, make up, or misinterpret results and data. Then there's objectivity. Researchers should always be objective
and follow the rules of science. Researchers should try to avoid all kinds of bias in their work, including bias in the

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design of experiments, the analysis and interpretation of data, the peer review process, the writing of grants, and
other areas. Aside from that, one of the most important ethical rules is to keep things secret. Researchers should
always follow the rule of privacy. One way to do this well is to protect confidential communications, such as
papers or grants that are sent to be published.

Animal Research

The study of animals other than humans has been and still is a very important part of psychology. If you've taken
an introductory psychology class, you've probably learned about important psychological research done with
animals, like Skinner's rats, Pavlov's dogs, and Harlow's monkeys. It's a shame that many first-year textbooks don't
give a full picture of animal research. When people talk about studies, they often don't say that they were done
on animals. People rarely talk about the basic animal research that made human studies possible when they talk
about those studies. Lastly, information about the moral and legal rules that guide animal research is either
mentioned briefly or not at all. These are important things that need to be talked about and thought about more.

Scientists who study animals know that their work can cause harm, from small things like drawing blood to big
things like killing an animal (e.g., neurosurgery). Researchers try to lessen some of the bad effects by, for example,
making sure the mental health of the animals is at its best. A lot of psychological research has been done on
animal welfare and the best ways to keep animals in captivity and care for them. Still, there will be some harm,
which must be weighed against the possible benefits of the research, both for people and for animals, from an
ethical point of view.

Thinking about what might happen to people if the research isn't done is just as important. For instance, if there
wasn't any research on animals, effective treatments for diseases like Alzheimer's might be found, but it would
take decades longer, and in the meantime, millions and millions more people would suffer. Animal research is still
an important part of psychology because it helps us learn about basic mental and physical processes that are
important for staying healthy. You can find out more about some of this research and the moral and legal issues
that come up.

Studies on animals have resulted in a significant gain in our comprehension of the fundamental principles
underlying the structure and function of the brain. Without this information, our capacity to further build
neurological models as well as psychological ideas of how the brain works would be severely hindered.

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