944456

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BCQXXX10.1177/2329490620944456Business and Professional Communication QuarterlyOrtiz

Article
Business and Professional

Reframing Neurodiversity
Communication Quarterly
1­–24
© 2020 by the Association for
as Competitive Advantage: Business Communication
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DOI: 10.1177/2329490620944456
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Business and Professional

Communication Educators

Lorelei A. Ortiz1 

Abstract
This article outlines opportunities and challenges of teaching neurologically diverse
students in the business communication course, providing basic resources and
information for instructors to supplement their knowledge and pedagogical ability
to support neurodiverse students. While the business communication course may
represent obstacles for neurodiverse students, it also provides the ideal opportunity
for them to practice and develop the soft skills that are essential to their success.
Included are implications for neurodiversity as competitive advantage as employers
look to harness the unique talents of neurodivergent graduates through active
recruitment programs and universities increase programming to support these
diverse and talented students.

Keywords
teaching neurodiversity, neurodiversity as competitive advantage, diversity and
inclusion, employment barriers for neurodiverse students, business communication
pedagogy

Because of its rich focus on persuasion, teamwork, audience awareness, employabil-

ity, personal branding, and oral and written communication, the business communica-
tion course creates a valuable learning environment for business students to develop

1
St. Edward’s University, USA

Corresponding Author:
Lorelei A. Ortiz, St. Edward’s University, 3001 S. Congress Avenue, Austin, TX 78704, USA.
Email: loreleio@stedwards.edu
2 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

requisite soft skills for the workplace while also expanding their emotional and social
intelligence. Success in the business communication course requires critical thinking,
rhetorical skill, collaboration ability, attention to detail, and confidence for credible
delivery of written projects and presentations. Typically, a required sophomore-to-
senior-level course, business communication often creates anxiety for students who
fear professional or public speaking. According to Morgan (2011), only about 10% of
the population loves public speaking. The other 90% are either “genuinely terrified”
or “get anxious” about delivering presentations. Those who are terrified of it, glos-
sophobics, “will go to great lengths to avoid speaking in a group situation and may
experience nausea, panic attacks and extreme anxiety” (Morgan, 2011). Similarly,
many college students fear college-level writing because they lack confidence or
practice, or both. Grunewald (2018) argued that writing-intensive courses within the
discipline (e.g., business communication) cover audience awareness, critical think-
ing, research, rhetorical strategies, and style, but they do not teach students funda-
mental writing skills. Therefore, some students may struggle to perform well without
additional support.
The standard business communication course, which requires a variety of oral and
written deliverables strategically tailored to a multitude of carefully analyzed audi-
ences, can be a challenge for any student. Yet there is a particular student for whom
this class may be additionally difficult—the neurodiverse student who exhibits neuro-
logical and/or sensory sensitivities. According to the National Symposium on
Neurodiversity at Syracuse University (n.d.),

neurodiversity is a concept where neurological differences are to be recognized and

respected as any other human variation. These differences can include those labeled with
dyspraxia, dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyscalculia, autistic spectrum
disorder, Tourette syndrome, and others.

Conversations about neurodiversity are often difficult because of the varied prefer-
ences or avoidances of labels and descriptors such as neurodivergent, neurotypical,
differently abled, or describing neurological differences as a disability (Austin &
Pisano, 2017; Muzikar, 2018). For purposes of those who teach at the university level,
however, disability services and disability accommodations are part of the daily lan-
guage we navigate in order to support students with these neurological differences
who enroll in our courses. The accommodation letter provides guidance for instructors
about the types of accommodations that a student who is neurodivergent would benefit
from in order to perform successfully in a course. Such accommodations often include
flexibility with deadlines or attendance, extended time for tests, use of a computer or
recorder for lectures, and/or the need to take breaks.
What the accommodation letter does not provide is a broader context for under-
standing the challenges that a neurodivergent student may experience in relation to
business communication course projects and deliverables. Such projects include a
strong emphasis on presentations, team work, written processes and products (often
with multiple iterations), self-guided audience analysis, personal branding activities,
Ortiz 3

and solving hypothetical or case scenarios through the use of rhetorical strategy, criti-
cal thinking, persuasion, and the methodical scrutiny and selection of appropriate
media and language for each communication and each audience.
A corollary challenge to supporting neurodivergent students in the business com-
munication course is that not all of these students seek support through the Student
Disability Services Office on campus. Thus, instructors must do their best to carefully
navigate the needs of those students who present accommodation letters, those who do
not present letters yet disclose to the instructor that they have a disability but prefer not
to seek disability services, and those students who may exhibit symptoms and need for
additional support but prefer not to disclose at all or are undiagnosed.
As Knight and Oswal (2018) have pointed out, very little disability and acces-
sibility research exists in the context of business communication practice and peda-
gogy, and arguably more so on how business communication courses can support
the development of social and professional skills for neurodiverse students. Knight
and Oswal proposed an ambitious research agenda for business communication
scholars and practitioners to become immersed in interdisciplinary scholarship on
disability and accessibility and to explore how this knowledge can be shared peda-
gogically with students and applied to the practice and research of the field. Equally
important is an exploration of how curriculum in the business communication field
can play an essential and valuable role in the development of soft skills for students
with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other sensory and neuroatypical abilities.
This article is an enthusiastic attempt to answer Knight and Oswal’s research call
for the benefit of every student, of every ability, who rises through our business
communication classrooms.
Highlighted in the pages that follow are the opportunities and challenges of teach-
ing neurologically diverse students in the business communication course and basic
resources and information for instructors to supplement knowledge and to develop
their pedagogical ability to support neurodiverse students. Also included are implica-
tions for neurodiversity as competitive advantage (Austin & Pisano, 2017; Twaronite,
2019) as employers look to harness the unique talents of neurodivergent graduates
through active recruitment programs coupled with the rise of university programs to
support this diverse and talented group of students.

Why Neurodiversity Research Matters

According to Mader and Butrymowicz (2017), only about a third of the students
with disabilities who enroll in a 4-year college or university graduate within 8
years—and those who enroll in 2-year programs graduate at a rate of only 41%.
These statistics are echoed by Finnegan and Finnegan (2016), citing a 2015 Autism
Speaks report that found that only 30% of high school graduates with autism attend
a 2- or 4-year college, and those that do fared poorly. Research suggests that 80%
of them never graduated. Mader and Butrymowicz (2017) argued that these dis-
couraging outcomes are not attributable to lack of ability given that many special
education students can grasp rigorous academic content and up to 90% of these
4 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

students can meet the same standards as general education students. However,
Mader and Butrymowicz argue that high schools often neglect to teach these stu-
dents the soft skills necessary to succeed in higher education (how to study, man-
age their time, and self-advocate). This lost opportunity for neurodiverse students
comes at a time when jobs in America requiring postsecondary education are pre-
dicted to go unfilled (Mader & Butrymowicz, 2017).
While symptoms of ASD often improve from childhood to adulthood, individuals
on the spectrum may still struggle to transition from college to the workforce, and
those who exhibit disruptive behaviors are often stigmatized as dangerous because
those around them may not understand the atypical behaviors related to ASD and simi-
lar conditions (Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2017; Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2018). Thus, work-
place outcomes and challenges also provide a strong impetus for greater awareness
and support of neurodiverse students and professionals. According to Schur et al.
(2017), employees with disabilities face numerous employment barriers and work-
place disparities, including lower pay/limited income potential, job insecurity and
inflexibility, negative treatment by management, and lower job satisfaction despite
having similar organizational commitment and turnover to their peers without disabili-
ties. Often, neurodiverse job candidates are disadvantaged by what Breward (2019)
has called “inadvertent discrimination and adverse impact interview questions” that
ask candidates to speculate, imagine, or speak to hypothetical scenarios and may not
be valid and reliable predictors of future job performance. Coupled with the expecta-
tion that interviewees make strong eye contact, which some individuals on the spec-
trum may find challenging, these interview standards disproportionately disadvantage
neurodiverse candidates from the very outset of the employment search process.
One Drexel University study found the following (as cited in Twaronite, 2019):

•• Fewer than one in six autistic adults is in full-time employment.

•• Less than 16% of survey participants have full-time paid work. This figure has
hardly changed since 2007.
•• 51% of autistic people in work said their skills were higher than those their job
required.
•• Only 32% are in some kind of paid work. More than three quarters (77%) who
are unemployed say they want to work.

Similarly, only 32% of high school graduates with autism find paying work within 2
years of graduating high school—a surprising statistic given that half of all individuals
with autism have average or above-average intelligence (Finnegan & Finnegan, 2016).
Despite federal legislation, including the Americans with Disabilities Act, which
mandates that colleges provide reasonable accommodations for students with dis-
abilities such as quiet exam settings and attendance flexibility, such accommodations
fall short of addressing the challenges faced by neurodiverse students because of the
complexity of conditions such as autism. Such conditions make it a social disability
whose inherent qualities include resistance to change, sensatory sensitivity, inability
to read social cues and tendency to take language literally—all of which interfere
Ortiz 5

with communication and social interaction (Finnegan & Finnegan, 2016). Thus, sup-
porting neurodiversity is not only important as a matter of course for changing the
educational outcomes for differently abled students but also important because diver-
sity and inclusion are the future professional experience of every college graduate
who enters the workplace.
According to Vohra et al. (2015), diversity includes both demographic diversity as
well as diversity of thought. Ely and Thomas (2001) have added to the definition the
perspectives of integration and learning, access and legitimacy, and discrimination and
fairness, which focus on the fair treatment of all members as a moral imperative.
Furthermore, the integration-and-learning perspective “is premised on the belief that
the skills, experiences, and insights of diverse employees are a potentially valuable
resource for learning and change, and is valued in the workgroup for the attainment of
its goals” (Vohra et al., 2015, p. 3).
The belief that every member of an organization has great value and the capac-
ity to make great contributions is a rising focus for leading organizations, many of
which are changing the landscape on diversity and inclusion. For example,
Deloitte’s (2013) people matter approach makes Deloitte an employer of choice
for its focus on ethics and employee wellness and for the resources it commits to
diversity and inclusion initiatives where individuals are “allowed to participate
and are enabled to contribute fully” (p. 20). According to Deloitte, “when employ-
ees think that their organization is committed to and supportive of diversity and
they feel included, they report better business performance in terms of their ability
to innovate, responsiveness to changing customer needs, and team collaboration”
(p. 19). Holvino et al. (2004) emphasized fairness and actively seeking out all
employees in the process of inclusion, and define inclusion as

equality, justice, and full participation at both the group and individual levels, so that
members of different groups not only have equal access to opportunities, decision-
making, and positions of power, but they are actively sought out because of their
differences. (p. 23).

Defining and Labeling Neurodiversity

According to the National Symposium on Neurodiversity at Syracuse University
(n.d.), “neurodiversity is a concept where neurological differences are to be recog-
nized and respected as any other human variation.” Research into neurodiversity
reveals that labels and/or descriptors for neurodiversity are broad and varied, with
terms such as neurodiverse, neurodivergent, neuroatypical, differently abled, individ-
ual with sensory sensitivity, autistic, person with a developmental disability, develop-
mental disadvantage, person with ASD, and person on the spectrum. Advocates and
scholars such as Eden (2017) and Twaronite (2019) are working to reframe the percep-
tion from one of developmental disability to one of competitive ability or varied abil-
ity. In the public arena, however, there is often apprehension or fear of mislabeling or
offending someone with sensory sensitivities, coupled with a lack of understanding of
6 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

what neurodiversity is and how to be respectful to sensibilities and preferences about

descriptors or labels. In addition, there is the challenge of avoiding stereotypes or
blanket appraisals of neurodiverse individuals and, for example, what it means to be
autistic or dyslexic or ADD, understanding that while there are general definitions for
each ability or condition, no two neurodiverse people are alike in every way or experi-
ence the exact same symptoms or abilities.
In the survey of literature conducted for this article, it appears that ASD is often the
primary focus of many resources on the topic of neurodiversity; it also appears that
multiple neurodiversity disorders fit within the ASD spectrum. According to the
National Institute of Mental Health (n.d.), autism spectrum disorder “is a developmen-
tal disability that can cause significant social, communication, and behavioral chal-
lenges. The term ‘spectrum’ refers to the wide range of symptoms, skills, and levels of
impairment that people with ASD can have.” The signs of ASD typically begin within
the first 2 years of life, and symptoms and severity can change over time. The National
Institutes of Health also notes that ASD varies in its effect on individuals and can range
from mild to severe, with some shared symptoms such as difficulties with social inter-
action and limited ability to successfully communicate and interact with others, devel-
oping language skills, and understanding body language such as hand gestures, eye
contact, and facial expressions. It is important to note, however, that while some indi-
viduals with ASD may have limited speaking ability, others may have rich vocabularies
and be able to speak in great detail about specific subjects. Figures from the National
Institutes of Health show that ASD affects people of every race, ethnic group, and
socioeconomic background and is five times more common among boys than among
girls. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that about 1 in
every 68 children in the United States has been identified as having ASD (CDC, 2020).

Survey of Relevant Literature

These CDC findings have great relevance as they underscore the well-documented
challenges that neurodiverse students experience, from preschool and into the college
environment—and beyond that into the world of work. For that reason, this survey of
relevant literature includes a broad array of studies, strategies, and treatments for
issues related to neurodiversity, ranging from childhood to adulthood and including
both academic and workplace studies. The goal of this literature review is to depict
how the different types of treatments at different stages of life demonstrate a contin-
uum of essential skills that intersect directly or indirectly with the learning objectives
of the business communication course.
Gillespie-Lynch et al.’s (2017) research identified some of the challenges that neu-
rodiverse individuals encounter, which include social difficulties, heightened anxiety,
problems with self-advocacy, and a sense of being stigmatized. However, as the
researchers have pointed out, these challenges are not specific to autism; students
with other disabilities have also expressed shared interest in developing their social,
employment-related, academic, and self-advocacy skills. Findings of their study sug-
gested that social skills activities through peer work were associated with decreased
Ortiz 7

anxiety and autism symptoms. Participation in self-advocacy groups was associated

with increased perceived social support from friends, academic self-efficacy, and
more accurate definitions of self-advocacy. Gillespie-Lynch et al. (2017) also found
that services for autistic college students are relatively limited despite emerging lit-
erature examining support for college students with a range of other disabilities.
Students with autism might benefit from services designed for a broad range of neu-
rodiverse students given that many autistic students do not self-identify as autistic in
college and may avoid autism-specific services. This research suggests that support
for neurodiverse college students should include opportunities to engage with diverse
peers and be developed with their participation and input.
Shattuck et al.’s (2011) longitudinal study compared nationally representative
estimates of participation in social activities among adolescents with ASD with other
groups of adolescents with disabilities and examined any correlations in limited
social participation. Their study found that adolescents with ASD were significantly
more likely never to see friends outside of school (43.3%), never to get called by
friends (54.4%), and never be invited to social activities (50.4%) compared with ado-
lescents from all other groups. In addition, Shattuck et al.’s findings correlated to low
family income and impairments in social communication, functional cognitive skills,
and conversational ability.
Similarly, Andanson et al. (2011) explored pervasive development disorders such as
Asperger syndrome whose main symptoms are severe impairment in social interaction
and communication—without significant delay in cognitive and language develop-
ment. As Andanson et al. have pointed out, individuals with AS and other forms of
high-functioning autism mostly have social skills deficit in relation to a lack of under-
standing concerning the rules that govern social interaction. The researchers argued that
such deficits often lead to peer rejection and social isolation that can alter quality of life
and have negative impacts on school and work success. Their study described efforts by
the French National Authority for Health to integrate evidence-based intervention pro-
fessional programs that emphasize social and professional participation as well as par-
ticipation in leisure activities, clubs and societies, and so on. According to 12 studies
cited by the researchers, these interventions are useful and significantly effective in
facilitating learning and decreasing anxiety through small-group participation, friendly
and predictable structured environment, and participation-based techniques such as
role-plays, modeling, and problem-solving strategies. This study confirmed the advan-
tages of social skills training groups for children and adolescents with AS and creates
the opportunity to develop new programs around social skills training.
Koyama and Wang (2011) explored the use of activity schedules aimed to teach
learners to self-manage individual schedules with multiple activities. Results of their
work underscore the value of activity schedules for promoting independence and
self-management skills for a broad range of individuals with intellectual disabilities.
In particular, the researchers noted an increase in engagement and on-task behavior
as a frequent outcome, followed by independent task initiation or transition and self-
scheduling. Koyama and Wang pointed out that such applications can be useful in
academic settings as well as in home settings.
8 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

Using data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2, a federally

funded, national study of the secondary and postschool experiences of students
with disabilities, Shogren and Plotner (2012) compared the status of transition
planning for students with intellectual disability, autism, or other disabilities. They
found that students with autism and intellectual disability were much less likely
than students with other disabilities to take a leadership role, and students with
autism and intellectual disability had more identified needs for support posteduca-
tion than other students in the study.
Wehman et al. (2014) used a case-control study design to examine the effect of sup-
ported employment intervention on employment rates of transition-age youth with
developmental and intellectual disabilities, including youth with autism, served by the
public vocational rehabilitation system. Results of their study, which included a sam-
ple of 23,298 youth between the ages of 16 and 25, found that supported employment
increased employment rates across all groups and was especially beneficial for stu-
dents with intellectual disabilities or autism who were high school graduates. Findings
of this study highlighted the benefits of supported employment for vocational rehabili-
tation outcomes of young adults with autism who are entering the workforce.
Noel et al. (2017) highlighted the vocational challenges that youth with develop-
mental and psychiatric disabilities encounter even when receiving employment sup-
port services. The researchers examined barriers to employment for 280 transition-age
youth with disabilities receiving employment support in eight community rehabilita-
tion centers. Using a 21-item checklist, employment team members identified the top
barriers for participants, which included lack of work experience, transportation chal-
lenges, program engagement issues, and lack of social skills. Noel et al. encouraged
awareness of typical barriers as a way of fortifying employment programs, anticipat-
ing challenges, and developing strategies to minimizing these barriers and their effects
on employment opportunities.
Lövgren et al. (2017) presented an overview of research in relation to support-to-
work services for individuals with intellectual and psychiatric disabilities, focusing on
support-to-work services as multifaceted and as an important tool for individual reha-
bilitation and goal setting. Lövgren et al. identified the need for long-term engagement
and cooperation between welfare services and the labor market in order to facilitate
transition from welfare interventions to employment.
Using a qualitative approach of content analysis and constant comparative
method, Li (2004) examined the self-perceived employment opportunities for 18
young working adults with mild intellectual disabilities via in-depth interviews.
Li’s findings revealed that all participants view employment as being very impor-
tant. Participants shared both negative and positive employment experiences pri-
marily related to workplace interpersonal relationships and attitudes of employers
and coworkers. Eight participants experienced possible discrimination based on
misconceptions about intellectual disability. This study encouraged equal opportu-
nities in education, support from employers and coworkers, and disability educa-
tion for the general population to facilitate full employment and social integration
for individuals with intellectual disabilities.
Ortiz 9

Bonete et al. (2015) identified the need for more targeted workplace adaptation
training for adults with Asperger syndrome that centers on social and interpersonal
problem solving through mediation for typical social situations in the workplace.
Comparison of pre- and posttests for 50 adult participants showed significantly higher
scores at posttreatment for social problem-solving task and socialization skills show-
ing there is value to such treatment for increasing workplace communication success
for individuals with Asperger’s syndrome.
Using the qualitative methods of photovoice and in-depth interviews, Akkerman
et al. (2014) explored the perspectives of individuals with mild to moderate intellec-
tual disabilities in relation to themes relevant to their job satisfaction in integrated and
sheltered employment. Findings identified nine themes important to participants: the
nature of the work they do, working conditions, job demands, social relations at work,
support provided, perceived autonomy, opportunities to use their competencies, oppor-
tunities for growth/development, and meaningfulness of the work experience. In a
related study, Akkerman et al. (2018) explored the factors that contribute to job satis-
faction for individuals with intellectual disabilities. Using self-determination theory,
the researchers used questionnaires and interviews of 117 participants in themes of
need fulfillment at work and job satisfaction. Findings revealed that participants’ job
satisfaction is linked to feeling effective, working with a sense of volition, and being
able to meet challenges and feel connected to others in the workplace. Akkerman et al.
(2018) have underscored the implications of these findings in relation to selection and
design of workplaces and support style of organizations. In addition, they have pointed
out the importance of allowing fulfillment of basic psychological needs for autonomy,
relatedness, and competence of people with intellectual disabilities and including the
perspectives of these employees in decisions regarding their employment situations.
Kocman and Weber’s (2018) systematic literature review of research related to
employment options for individuals with intellectual disability focused on factors
related to job satisfaction and related issues. Their review suggested that predictors of
job satisfaction for this group are similar to those of individuals without disabilities,
with control over vocational decisions as an important factor in high satisfaction.
In a review of relevant research between 1993 and 2013, Ellenkamp et al. (2016)
focused on answering the question, “What work environment-related factors contrib-
ute to obtaining or maintaining work in competitive employment for people with an
intellectual disability?” Their findings suggested that despite legislation to promote
paid workforce participation of individuals with intellectual disabilities, research in
this area remains scarce, particularly as it relates to competitive work and attention to
employer’s hiring decisions, job content, integration and work culture, and availabil-
ity of job coaches.
Citing low employment rates for persons with disabilities despite more than 25
years of the Americans with Disabilities Act, Smith et al. (2017) investigated the
effectiveness of interventions to increase employment for people with various disabili-
ties. The researchers cited strong evidence for ongoing support and work-related social
skills training prior to and during competitive employment for persons with mental
health disabilities. They also cited moderate evidence for supported simulation and
10 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

use of assistive technology, including peer support apps to encourage work participa-
tion for persons with intellectual disabilities, neurological/cognitive disabilities, and
autism spectrum disorder.
Studies such as those conducted by Flink (2019) and Xin and Leonard (2015)
focused on the use of technology as an educational tool for students with autism and
those from other neurodiverse backgrounds to facilitate skills development in the areas
of creative self-expression, communication, and classroom participation. Schur et al.
(2017) concurred that technology can play an increasingly important role in decreas-
ing employment disparities, in conjunction with targeted efforts by government,
employers, insurers, occupational rehabilitation providers, and disability groups to
address workplace barriers faced by employees with disabilities.
Researchers in the field of neurodiversity have also studied the use of video and in
vivo modeling in the classroom (Charlop-Christy et al., 2000; Wilson, 2013) to cap-
ture data about participants’ learning preferences and processes as well as educators’
perceptions of the acceptability of each intervention in the classroom setting. As
Wilson (2013) explained, video modeling consists of participants watching a video of
models performing a target behavior, whereas in vivo modeling consists of partici-
pants observing live models perform the target behavior. Wilson (2013) argued that

persistent deficits in social interaction and communication are argued to be the

defining traits of autism and affect such varied skills as play, use of social language,
and initiation of social interactions. For individuals with autism, development of early
social-communication skills is an integral step toward reaching their academic and
social potential. (p. 1819)

Results from Charlop-Christy et al. (2000) suggested that video modeling led to
faster acquisition of tasks than in vivo modeling and was effective in maintaining par-
ticipants’ attention and capitalizing on the relative visual processing strengths of indi-
viduals with autism and this population’s often-intense interest in electronic screen
media (Mineo et al., 2009, as cited in Wilson, 2013). Recent research, argued Wilson,
has shown the effectiveness of video modeling in teaching and modifying a variety of
behaviors in children with autism, including functional living skills, noncompliant
behaviors, and social-communication skills such as play-related statements, toy play,
and social initiations. Adding to the unique appeal of video modeling is its practicality,
efficiency of use, and affordability, given the increase and advances in digital technol-
ogy (Charlop-Christy et al., 2000; Wilson, 2013).
The research in this literature review broadly demonstrates the seemingly exhaus-
tive exploration into neurodiversity, methods and strategies for treatment and sup-
port, and the skills, abilities, and deficiency areas of most urgent need for the social,
personal, and professional success of neurodiverse students. Interestingly, many of
these skills and abilities fall into the realm of what is taught in the business commu-
nication classroom. As the review of relevant literature identified, field-based meth-
odologies and development strategies for neurodiverse students align closely with
elements of the business communication curriculum and target competencies taught
Ortiz 11

across most business communication courses (effective interpersonal communica-

tion, time management, leadership ability, audience awareness and understanding of
decorum, teamwork/collaboration, and many others). As such, courses that focus on
business communication and business and professional speaking provide an ideal
environment to support students with sensory sensitivities in the development of
these important soft skills that are crucial to their life success.

The Business Communication Course as Opportunity and Obstacle

Research now cited underscores the importance of soft skills development for neuro-
diverse students as a major factor in their social, personal, and professional success. As
argued by Gillespie-Lynch et al. (2017), many neurodiverse college students are in
need of support in three domains that are of particular relevance in the complex col-
lege environment and may have substantial impact on stress levels and academic per-
formance: social skills, self-advocacy, and executive functioning/self-regulation.
These three domains align with business communication curriculum whose foun-
dational requisites are built on the development of soft skills and social and emotional
intelligence in order to successfully carry out the requirements of course projects and
activities. On a macrolevel, the business communication course calls for and further
develops critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, audience awareness, and
rhetorical strategy skills based on students’ ability to analyze purpose and audience on
a case by case basis. Students must navigate and justify choices around persuasion,
negotiation, decorum/style, and genre/media without the confines or safety of “only
one right answer” as there is much latitude and multiple ways of effectively executing
a communication task based on the student’s analysis of multiple relevant and impor-
tant factors. On a microlevel, students become familiar with and make decisions
around a plethora of business communication genres, develop business writing and
editing skills, and often work with self-guided heuristic tools for doing so given the
limited amount of class time that must be devoted to other course activities such as
presentations, lectures, guest speakers, and in-class activities.
Projects and deliverables in the business communication course are specific in their
broad requirements but are often deliberately ambiguous in that they require the stu-
dent to solve a targeted communication problem and provide the granular detail and
content of a communication, choosing appropriate medium, rhetorical strategy, design,
and language to deliver a message for a selected audience and purpose. The standard
business communication course also requires substantial teamwork, often in the form
of team presentations, as well as projects around employability such as developing and
drafting employment application materials, doing mock interviews, creating a
LinkedIn profile, developing a personal brand, attending job and internship fairs, and
interacting with and networking with industry guest speakers and other professionals.
Davis (2012), concurrent with research in the survey of the literature, has high-
lighted why such a course would be challenging for students with sensory or ASD
issues and identifies some of the anxiety triggers for individuals with autistic spec-
trum disorder:
12 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

•• Unstructured time that has no specific rules that create boundaries or limits
•• Academic situations where the student does not understand what to do and how
to do it
•• Breaking down tasks
•• Writing
•• Organization
•• Presentations in class
•• Answering aloud in class
•• Sensory situations that involve crowds and spaces that are too large, too
crowded, too bright, too loud
•• Social situations that are novel, unplanned, and unannounced
•• Changes in plans that interrupt the daily routine
•• Initiating a conversation with a peer

Finnegan and Finnegan (2016) agreed that group work, public speaking, and active
classrooms may offer particular challenges for students who struggle socially and who
do not thrive in environments demanding rapid transitions. Added to this challenge is
the consideration that in most undergraduate and graduate business programs, the
business communication course—or some version of it—is a required course that all
students must successfully complete in order to graduate.
Despite the obstacles that the business communication course may represent for
neurodiverse students, it also provides the ideal opportunity for these students to prac-
tice and develop the soft skills that are so essential to their success. According to Mader
and Butrymowicz (2017), providing neurodiverse students adequate opportunities to
practice soft skills is just as important as providing them with direct instruction in com-
munication and organizing strategies. The business communication course offers struc-
tured learning time to develop soft skills through a variety of course-related activities,
includes opportunities for neurodiverse students to observe targeted behavior modeled
by their peers, and offers an environment where these students can practice teamwork
and learn about effective collaboration, with guidance and support from faculty and any
ancillary support services on campus that the faculty member may choose to engage.
In essence, the business communication course can serve as a learning space, and
more important, a brave space, for neurodiverse students to practice social behaviors
and challenge themselves to gain experience that reflects the social and professional
exigencies they will encounter in the workplace. In keeping with Arao and Clemens’s
(2013) notion of learning spaces as they relate to issues of diversity and social justice,
we need to shift away from the illusion of safety and safe spaces and instead empha-
size the need for brave spaces that more accurately reflect the courage necessary for
students of all abilities to take risks and challenge themselves in new learning environ-
ments—and equally, the bravery required from faculty to do the same.

The Accommodation Letter and Its Context and Challenges

Under the U.S. Department of Education, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of
1973 protects the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that
Ortiz 13

receive federal financial assistance or federal funds, including public school districts,
institutions of higher education, and other state and local education agencies. Section
504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 provides,

No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States . . . shall, solely
by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the
benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving
Federal financial assistance.

Much of the support that neurodiverse students receive in the K-12 classroom is
linked to Section 504 protections, which are legally binding and fall within the provi-
sions of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. In universities, accommodation plans are
designed through student disability services offices as a plan of instruction to assist
students with special needs who attend regular education programs. Those who teach
business communication have likely seen accommodation letters. Such letters will
typically offer suggested reasonable accommodations for the student such as extended
time on tests, flexibility with deadlines and/or attendance, use of a computer or other
device for note-taking, and so on. The accommodation letter can be considerably help-
ful as a guide for instructors on what types of accommodations would be helpful for
the student to succeed. Yet there are often challenges to interpreting the letter and to
the general topic of disclosure.
First, what is reasonable? For example, if the accommodations list for a student
includes flexibility with attendance, how many absences are deemed reasonable? In
most cases, the instructor makes that determination based on his or her own judgment,
the course expectations, and other factors particular to each case. Usually, student dis-
ability counselors on campus are available to provide support or guidance to make
such determinations when requested.
Second, some students with special needs, particularly those with autism, do not
report these needs through official channels and, therefore, do not provide an accom-
modation letter. In such cases, the instructor may or may not become aware of any
challenges throughout the term. Gillespie-Lynch et al.’s (2017) findings showed that,
indeed, some students with educational classifications of autism do not identify as
autistic and avoid support for autistic people, some citing such support as discrimina-
tory. In cases where a disability is suspected but not disclosed, faculty may seek guid-
ance from student disability services on how to manage potential conversations with a
student who may benefit from support.
Third and finally, some students self-report to the instructor but have no official
documentation because they choose not to report their disability to the university
for fear of being labeled or leaving a documentation trail that they perceive will
hinder their employment later in life. On one recent occasion, a student with no
accommodation documentation struggling with a team-based assignment in the
business communication course, disclosed to the instructor that he was autistic but
did not want his team to know and did not want to seek assistance from the univer-
sity or report his disability. He wanted to keep the matter private. The instructor had
to balance the student’s request for privacy with the glaring performance issues
14 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

experienced by the student himself and noticed by his classmates. It is important to

note that while some individuals on the spectrum wish to conceal their status, oth-
ers do not wish to conceal it and view it as an important aspect of their identity
(Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2017).
In summary, while the accommodation letter is a helpful guide for faculty, it is
often open to interpretation and does not educate faculty on the broader challenges
that neurodiverse students may experience in relation to the business communica-
tion course. Moreover, in cases where students are adamantly opposed to disclos-
ing a special need or disability, the value of the accommodation letter becomes
irrelevant.

Resources for the Business Communication Instructor

As Mader and Butrymowicz (2017) have pointed out, students with sensory disabili-
ties process information differently, may have difficulty with executive function and
time management, and may struggle with knowing how to act in social situations. As
a result, these students may benefit from more explicit instruction to develop and use
their soft skills. Gillespie-Lynch et al. (2017) agreed that effective techniques to sup-
port soft skills development could reduce some of the challenges encountered by neu-
rodiverse college students, both inside and outside of the classroom. What follows are
some simple pedagogical strategies that support neurodiverse students while also ben-
efitting the rest of the students in the class.

Open Lines and Modes of Communication

Business communication faculty can begin by establishing a relationship with the
student to initiate lines of communication and trust so that the student knows that
the faculty member is a source of support from the outset. Equally helpful is con-
necting with the student disability office on campus in order to identify what sup-
port and resources are available to faculty and to their neurodiverse students.
Specialized programs often include group mentoring and peer mentors/social
coaches to aid in the development of effective social skills and self-advocacy
skills (standing up for oneself, leading others, better adaptation to college and
career, communicating their needs to peers and professors), which can have a posi-
tive effect on academic performance and social interaction (Gillespie-Lynch et al.,
2017; Kruse & Oswal, 2018).
Business communication faculty can also use multiple modes of communication to
deliver course content and assignment instructions. For example, an in-class
PowerPoint lecture can also be recorded using tools like Panopto and uploaded to the
course learning management system, complete with the slide deck, for students to
access outside of class time and under the conditions that may be most conducive to
their learning. Language used in lectures and assignment prompts is most accessible to
students of all abilities when it is clear, simple, and concise and uses wording that is
unambiguous and leaves no room for misinterpretation.
Ortiz 15

Use the Course Syllabus as a Tool for Inclusion

Equally important, faculty would do well to serve neurodiverse students by promi-
nently featuring information related to disability and accommodation in course syllabi.
As Pillay and Bhat (2012) posited, “given that college instructors may also be unin-
formed about disability laws, students on the spectrum who do not know that they
must self-advocate to receive services may not receive appropriate accommodations”
(as cited in Gillespie-Lynch et al., 2017). Again, in such cases, student disability ser-
vices can provide guidance on helpful as well as required language that needs to be
included in course syllabi.
Also helpful is incorporating a collaborative element or tone in the syllabus that
creates a partnership between the instructor and the student for fostering an inclusive
classroom environment. Wood and Madden (2014) encouraged collaborative elements
in the syllabus as a way of empowering students and helping them claim agency in
their learning. Phrases such as “let’s work together to develop an accommodation plan
that provides the support you need” invites the student to communicate with the
instructor and establishes a foundation of care and support.
Attendance and participation are certainly important, as they create opportunities
for students to learn from and with each other, in addition to learning content covered
in class. It might be helpful, however, to consider how participation and attendance
requirements affect learning for students with certain disabilities. When considering
attendance and participation policies for inclusion in the syllabus, faculty might con-
sider alternate metrics for evaluating student engagement and learning. As Kruse and
Oswal (2018) have suggested, participation does not have to take an oral form. For
example, students can participate via written comments on index cards that the instruc-
tor can use to guide class discussion. With regard to attendance, recommended accom-
modations from student disability services for students with special needs can be
helpful. However, for students who prefer not to report, an open line of communica-
tion with the student and a relationship of support becomes even more essential, so
that the student feels comfortable sharing information about their challenges and needs
regarding attendance.

Course Design With Accommodation in Mind

In addition to considerations regarding course syllabi and strategies for communica-
tion, adaptations to course design can be useful for making course content more acces-
sible to neurodiverse students and students in general. Many pedagogical resources
reviewed for this article highlight the value of adopting Principles of Universal Design
(UD), whereby instructors design course materials and environments “to be usable by
all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or special-
ized design” (Principles of UD, 1997).
Instructional materials that are consistent with UD principles provide, among other
things, clear expectations, structured opportunities to interact, a constructive class cul-
ture, and consistent feedback. This includes, for example, creating a class climate that
16 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

both values and respects inclusion and diversity by including inclusive statements in
syllabi and other course materials. It may also include the provision of multiple modes
of delivery by which students can choose from among different ways to access content
such as lectures, experiential activities, collaborative projects, internet-based commu-
nication, and fieldwork, to name a few.

Cautions Regarding Checklists and Unequal Access.  For those using UD principles,
these are often prescribed in the form of a checklist that covers eight performance
indicator categories: class climate, interactions, physical environments and prod-
ucts, delivery methods, information resources and technology, feedback, assess-
ment, and accommodation (Burgstahler, 2007). While checklist-based resources
such as UD can be a useful starting point for accommodation, the problem with
overrelying on such checklists is the continued issue of unequal access. Employing
UD principles does not eliminate or replace the need for flexibility to account for
specific accommodations for students with varying disabilities. Oswal and Melon-
con (2017) agreed that

while checklists are meant to help facilitate inclusive and accessible classrooms (both
online and face-to-face) by providing faculty a starting place on issues where they may
not have a lot of experience, unfortunately they are often both the starting and ending
place for accessible course design. (p. 63)

Oswal and Meloncon raised the valid concern of whether formulaic tools such as
checklists, which are often required by program administrators as a means to check the
policy box, can truly be in the best interest of users, or be user- and learner-centered at
their core.
Particularly for inexperienced faculty with little access to resources or training
in serving students with disabilities, checklists can seem a safe default mechanism
that speaks to an effort to accommodate and be inclusive. However, as Oswal and
Meloncon (2017) warned, pedagogy that follows a checklist exclusively runs the
risk of perpetuating the ideology of normalcy that is unlikely to accommodate the
needs of the majority of students with disabilities. This is especially poignant
when considering the many aspects of a course that need to be managed and that
often require the use of fairly complex learning management systems and their
related tools.

Innovate and Include Through Participatory Course Design.  Checklists such as UD

may offer a place to start but are considerably limited unless used in conjunction
with inclusive approaches such as Oswal and Meloncon’s (2017) participatory
course design, an approach where all stakeholders are empowered to play an active
role.
This approach has several simple yet valuable activities that can be easily incorpo-
rated into a business communication course to ensure true inclusion while also creat-
ing useful feedback loops for continuous course improvement:
Ortiz 17

•• Creating multiple assignments to meet a learning goal and allowing students to

choose one
•• Using midterm evaluations to solicit student feedback on accessibility attri-
butes of the course in addition to course content
•• Collaborating with instructional designers and students (including students
with disabilities) to pretest course tools on learning management systems
•• Creating training opportunities where business communication faculty interact
with differently abled student focus groups to learn more about needs and chal-
lenges related to the business communication course

Participatory course design, as Oswal and Meloncon (2017) have demonstrated, offers
an innovative pedagogical approach that empowers students and gives them a stake in
shaping their curriculum. This student-centered pedagogical approach also opens a
pathway for educators to explore experimental pedagogies while providing a forum
for learners of all abilities to self-advocate on their own behalf. This opportunity for
self-advocacy greatly increases the probability that students with disabilities can
access course material and thus creates greater harmony between course learning out-
comes and student learning needs, leading to greater outcomes for accommodation.

Learn More, Challenge Ableist Perspectives, and Reframe the Narrative

Finally and evidently, to provide more effective support to neurodiverse students in the
business communication classroom, faculty would benefit from better awareness and
understanding of neurodiversity and must be proactive in educating themselves. Even
the most basic fundamental knowledge of neurodiversity can make a difference in the
instructor’s ability to understand challenges and interact with and support a student
with sensory sensitivities. Clearly, no two students are alike, and it is important not to
create blanket categorizations or stereotypes; yet some basic understanding of general
triggers and communication techniques may be helpful. The goal is to support and to
bring out the potential of every student, recognizing strengths and encouraging and
facilitating growth and development. The business communication course is an ideal
brave space for students to develop soft skills, and it is incumbent on the instructor to
foster an environment that enables this development and takes into consideration the
diversity in the classroom.
Ideally, instructors should strive to create brave spaces while recognizing the value
and potential of neurodiverse students to thrive and contribute, thus requiring a refram-
ing of neurodiversity as disability to neurodiversity as advantage. To achieve this
reframing, we must begin by challenging thinking that promotes normalcy over dis-
ability and in turn creates ableist perspectives that further devalue and discriminate
against individuals with disability (Kruse & Oswal, 2018; Oswal, 2013;). Equally
important to reframing thinking on diversity and inclusion is Valencia’s (2010) notion
of deficit thinking. Founded on research of race and class bias, deficit thinking explains
the practice of blaming the victim for system failures rather than examining how sys-
tems are structured to impede or prevent populations from accessing learning and/or
18 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

services. Thus, essential to discourse of neurodiversity is a focus on antideficit think-

ing that values what neurodiverse individuals have to offer, frames this value in terms
of advantage, and proposes systems for learning that are equitable and democratic,
beginning proactively with what Heilig (2018) called “diagnosing accessibility issues”
that impede equal access to things essential to learning such as access to information,
communication, and so on (p. 435). These accessibility issues, at best, Heilig argued,
reflect an organization’s underlying values and attitudes about people with disabilities
and, at worst, speak to an organization’s lack of ethical and moral care for its users of
varied abilities.

Neurodiversity as Competitive Advantage

Some employers and universities have already adopted this reframing as evidenced
by recent efforts to recruit neurodiverse talent. According to the Employer
Assistance and Resource Network on Disability Inclusion (EARN, n.d.), employ-
ers who hire neurodiverse individuals note their aptitude for certain roles such as
those that require attention to detail, high levels of concentration, pattern or error
detection, inferential reasoning, strong mathematical skills, coding, or data-cen-
tered processes. Neurodiverse employees are also recognized for being timely,
loyal, reliable, and innovative, and employers consistently report that their neuro-
diverse teams are more effective and productive than those without neurodiverse
representation, in part due to their strong recall abilities, detailed factual knowl-
edge, reliability and persistence, and appreciation for routine/repetition (EARN,
n.d.). Moreover, research identifies a consumer preference for doing business with
organizations that employ people of all abilities.
Ernst and Young’s (EY) Global Diversity and Inclusiveness Officer, Karyn
Twaronite, agreed that neurodiverse individuals possess some of the skills businesses
most urgently need:

They thrive on predictability and can be especially tenacious and loyal workers who
prefer to stay with one organization rather than move from opportunity to opportunity.
Companies are finding that people with autism approach problems differently and that
their logical, straightforward thinking can spur process improvements that greatly
increase productivity. (Twaronite, 2019)

EY is a leader in the recruitment of neurodiverse talent and has built impressive sup-
port and business models around this initiative, with great success and recognition for
its efforts.
Austin and Pisano (2017) in a lengthy Harvard Business Review article highlighted
the growing number of prominent companies that have reformed their human resources
processes in order to access neurodiverse talent. Among them are SAP, Hewlett
Packard Enterprise, Microsoft, Willis Towers Watson, Ford, and EY. Many others,
including Caterpillar, Dell Technologies, Deloitte, IBM, JPMorgan Chase, and UBS
have start-up or exploratory efforts under way. Austin and Pisano also point out that
Ortiz 19

while these types of recruitment initiatives are fairly new, organizations are already
seeing the payoff beyond reputational enhancement in the form of productivity gains,
quality improvement, increases in innovative capabilities, and broad increases in
employee engagement. In addition, the researchers cited industry leaders who claim
that this initiative is creating better managers within their organizations through the
process of deeper commitment to talent leveraging of all employees and greater sensi-
tivity to individual needs.
Similarly, universities such as Landmark College, Stanford University, California
State University, Fullerton, and The College of William & Mary have recently
strengthened recruitment of and offerings for neurodiverse students through targeted
and focused recruitment activities, curricular and extracurricular programming, and
ancillary services to support the academic experience (Eden, 2017; Kafka, 2018).

Limitations
The topic of this article is timely and relevant given the current climate of diversity
and inclusion and the importance of being responsive to the needs of every student
of every ability in order to ensure that no student is left behind. The article is not
without limitations, however, and there are several opportunities for richer explora-
tion. Primarily, the article focuses on secondary research to position the topic of
neurodiversity and its relevant treatment in the business communication course. It
lacks original content and primary pedagogical research that could expand knowl-
edge and new research lines into this topic. Further studies could focus on imple-
menting participatory course design strategies in the classroom and presenting the
findings or developing and testing experimental projects, gathering reflections and
interview data as a basis for additional or expanded articles. Despite its limitations,
the article offers useful information and resources to increase understanding of neu-
rodiversity in general as well as in relation to the business communication classroom
in particular, and it contributes to emerging efforts to reframe the perception of
neurodiversity as competitive advantage.

Implications and Conclusion

There are a number of barriers to providing better support for neurodiverse students,
including issues around funding, faculty training, adequate resources, and curricular
support (Kruse & Oswal, 2018; Saggers, 2016). Yet programming and curricular focus
may be less important than providing the right opportunities for neurodiverse students
to interact and build relationships with peers and faculty, exercise their ability to self-
advocate, and participate in designing the curriculum that supports their learning. In
fact, creating more inclusive learning environments through participatory design;
challenging ableism in institutional policies, infrastructure, and curriculum; and pro-
viding adequate training for faculty can all play a significant role in advancing a model
of disability that centers on support and inclusion and brings us closer to the ultimate
goal: access (Kruse & Oswal, 2018).
20 Business and Professional Communication Quarterly 00(0)

As this article endeavored to demonstrate, the business communication course can

be a place of inclusion and opportunity for students of all abilities. Significant progress
is possible if business communication instructors and institutions in general can
empower neurodiverse students by including them in the development and evaluation
of programs designed to support them. Neurodiversity as competitive advantage is
already a reality, and incrementally, a majority of universities and employers will dedi-
cate additional resources to build adequate infrastructure and programming around
this talented demographic. Until that happens, business communication instructors can
continue to use their classrooms as brave spaces to both support and challenge neuro-
diverse students on their trajectory to discovering the value and potential of their abili-
ties in both life and work.

Author’s Note
This article is based on a paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Business
Communication, Detroit, Michigan, 2019.

Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express gratitude to Kendall Swanson, Director of Disability Services and
ADA Coordinator at St. Edward’s University, for her support and feedback on this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

ORCID iD
Lorelei A. Ortiz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1375-2100

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Author Biography
Lorelei Ortiz is chair of the Management Department and a professor of business communica-
tion at the Bill Munday School of Business, St. Edward’s University.