Aditya

A
Seminar Report
on
ELECTRONIC DEVICE COOLING SYSTEMS
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement
for the award of the
Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Mechanical Engineering
Submitted By: Under the supervision of:
Aditya Mantri Sh. Rajeev Rajora
(19/144) Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
(VIII Semester) UTD, RTU Kota
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA
March 2023
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Aditya Mantri, student of B. Tech (Mechanical Engineering)
VIIIth Semester has submitted his seminar entitled “ELECTRONIC DEVICE COOLING
SYSTEMS” under my guidance.
Sh. Rajeev Rajora
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Sh. Rajeev Rajora for providing his
invaluable guidance, comments, and suggestions throughout the course. I am indebted to
him for constantly motivating me to work harder, helping me throughout the seminar.
I extend this acknowledgement to my batch mates and Department of Mechanical

Engineering for constantly supporting me and providing me their invaluable suggestion. I
am extremely thankful to Professor A.K. Chaturvedi, HOD (Department of Mechanical
Engineering) for constantly motivating me regarding career. I thank my parents and family
for always appreciating my efforts and keep inspiring me to perform better. Finally, I am
thankful to the Almighty God who gives me the opportunity to lead on this earth and
providing m e strength in the toughest phase of my life.
ADITYA MANTRI
19/144
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ABSTRACT
The cooling or thermal management issues are facing critical challenges with the
continuous miniaturization and rapid increase of heat flux of electronic devices.
Significant efforts have been made to develop high-efficient cooling and flexible thermal
management solutions and corresponding design tools. This article reviews the latest
progress and the state-of-the-art in electronic cooling, which could help inspire future
research. The commonly used methods in electronic cooling, classified into direct and
indirect cooling, are reviewed and discussed in detail. Direct cooling consists of air
cooling, spray and jet impingement cooling, immersion cooling, and droplet
electrowetting. As for indirect cooling, the most popular and hot topics of
using microchannel, heat pipe, vapour chamber, thermoelectric, and PCM are
overviewed. The effectiveness of the thermal management methods for different-level
requirements of electronic cooling and the ways how heat transfer capability can be
improved are also introduced in detail. Meanwhile, the pros and cons of these thermal
management methods are discussed based on their inherent heat transfer
performances/characteristics, optimisation methods, and relevant applications. In
addition, the current challenges of electronic cooling and thermal management
technologies are explored, along with the outlook of possible future advances.
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Typical application areas of integrated circuits...................................................7

Figure 2: (a) The development trend of chip maximum power consumption, heat fluX
density, approXimate transistor counts in the past 20 years. …………………
(b) distribution of failure causes of electronic equipment.....................................13
Figure 3: Classification of commonly used thermal management methods.....................13
Figure 4: The range of heat fluX density applies to conventional cooling methods....14
Figure 5: Heat Maps............................................................................................................15
Figure 6: Evaporator............................................................................................................16
Figure 7: Commonly used microstructures in the microchannel heat transfer
enhancement........................................................................................................16
Figure 8: Condenser fan.......................................................................................................17
Figure 9: AC blower motor..................................................................................................18
Figure 10: Charge controller................................................................................................18
Figure 11: VCRS cycle........................................................................................................20
Figure 12: VCRS T-S & P-H cycle….................................................................................21
Figure 13: VARS system….................................................................................................22
Figure 14: Vapour adsorption system….............................................................................25
Figure 15: Solar panel….....................................................................................................26
Figure 16: Battery…...........................................................................................................28
Figure 17: Inverter…..........................................................................................................28
Figure 18: PV panel….......................................................................................................33
Figure 19: Solar power circuit............................................................................................34
Figure 20: Refrigeration line diagram…............................................................................35
Figure 21: Curve COP v/s Time........................................................................................37

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE...................................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................................4
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................7
CHAPTER-2 DIRECT CONTACT WITH COOLING FLUID....................................................11

2.1 AIR COOLING.......................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER-3 INDIRECT CONTACT WITH COOLING FLUID................................................13

3.1 PARTS OF AIR CONDITIONER..........................................................................................13
3.2 METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................................20
3.2.1 Vapor compression air conditioning (VCRS)........................................................................20
3.2.2 Vapour absorption-refrigeration air conditioning (VARS)...................................................21
3.2.3 Refrigerant and absorption.................................................................................................23
3.2.4 Vapour adsorption system..................................................................................................24
CHEPTAR 4 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOKS..............................................................................36
LITRATURE REVIEWS ………………………………………………………………………………..
REFRENCES ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
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CHAPTER-1.
INTRODUCTION
Since Werner Jacobi introduced the early concept of the integrated circuit in 1949 [1], the
integrated circuit has developed rapidly in half a century. An integrated circuit is usually a
small chip made of semiconductor material silicon, manufactured by even the several-
nanometreprocess and could accommodate millions to billions of microstructures such as
transistors, resistors, and capacitors. Nowadays, the integrated circuit has been used in almost
all electronic devices, and modern life has also been integrated with various electronic
products deeply, as shown in Fig. 1.
These applications have significantly improved efficiency and quality of modern peoples’
work, production, and life. Then, against the fast development of the integrated circuit
industry, the famous “Moore’s Law” was proposed in the 1960s [2]. Although the “Moore’s
Law” is an empirical relation in production essentially rather than natural law, its accuracy
has been proven for decades and the law has been widely used to guide research and
development goals in the semiconductor industry. Based on the “Moore’s law”, the number of
transistors that can be accommodated on the integrated circuit will keep increasing, as shown
in Fig. 2(a). Simultaneously, with increasing demand of market development, current
electronic devices move towards miniaturisation, thinness, and lightness. However, more
transistors and a smaller device size mean more power and greater heat flux density.
Up to now, the heat flux density of advanced server equipment chips can reach the order of 1
MW/m2, and the heat flux density of phased array radar and other equipment can even reach
5 −10 MW/m2 [3]. As a result, these scenarios pose great challenges to thermal management
technologies in order to maintain the operations within safety ranges. As shown in Fig. 2(b),
the problems of temperature is identified as the cause of approximately 55% of electronic
equipment failures, according to a study conducted by the US Air Force Avionics Integrity
Program [4]. In addition, Black’s equation [5] indicates that the increase of temperature would
accelerate the failure process of electronic devices. Therefore, dealing with temperature issues
of electronic devices has become increasingly important nowadays. As mentioned above, heat
generation is increasing along with the continuous improvement of the integrated circuit
manufacturing process. Therefore, the integrated circuit industry needs efficient thermal
management technologies, which are expected to keep improving the performance and
reliability of electronic devices. Even though traditional air cooling can address the heat
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dissipation issues by optimizing the heat sink design for some general electronic devices [7],
more other cooling schemes for advanced high-performance electronic devices are critically
needed. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 3, a series of electronic cooling methods has been
proposed and studied in depth. Usually, these thermal management concepts are divided into
active and passive cooling methods [8]. The main difference between them is that the passive
cooling system is generally based on natural convection, while the active cooling system
needs to be supplied by the external energy,
Fig. 1. Typical application areas of integrated circuits.
Fig. 2. (a) The development trend of chip maximum power consumption, heat fluX density, and
approXimate transistor counts in the past 20 years [6]; (b) distribution of failure causes of electronic
equipment [4].
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usually electric energy, to enhance the heat dissipation capability of the heat sink. Naturally,
the active cooling system generally has better heat transfer ability, so most cooling methods
are developing based on active cooling and are widely used in the thermal management of
high-power electronic devices. Hence, in this review article, the active cooling systems are
introduced in detail owing to their excellent heat transfer performance and wide ranges of
applications. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 3, thermal management technologies are also
divided into coolings of direct or indirect contact with the cooling fluid, based on whether the
cooling medium contact with the targets. For direct contact cooling, liquid cooling has
attracted more attention due to its better heat dissipation than conventional air cooling.
amongst them, spray cooling has been studied extensively [9,10]. The spray cooling method
atomizes droplets through high-pressure pumps and nozzles, and covers the entire heating
surface (insulating surface) of an electronic device. Spray cooling has the advantage of high
heat transfer capability, excellent temperature uniformity, and sizeable cooling area. The jet
impingement cooling is similar to spray cooling but does not need droplet atomization.
Fig. 3. Classification of commonly used thermal management methods.

The study on jet impingement heat transfer enhancement focuses on optimising jet
parameters, liquid characteristics, and heating surface structures [11]. Besides, the immersion
cooling method also offers excellent cooling performance and could be applied to data centres
[12] and servers [13]. Simultaneously, droplet electrowetting is employed by researchers to
control hot spots of electronic devices. Due to the controlling of droplet motion can be
achieved by adjusting the surface wettability, the design of surface structures or mophologies
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could significantly influence the method of thermal management. As for the methods of
indirect coolingthey refer to the cooling medium dissipating heat through heat sinks, and have
also been studied extensively and applied widely. The pipeline heat exchanger is the most
common component for the external heat sink. Unlike direct contact cooling, the indirect
contact cooling needs to consider the contact thermal resistance of external heat sinks.
Therefore, thermal interface materials (TIMs) are proposed and plays an essential role in the
thermal management of electronic devices [14].
The microchannel heat sink gains much attention amongst indirect cooling methods due to its
high heat transfer capability and compact size. Therefore, microchannel cooling has been
widely used in the thermal management of small and high-power electronic devices. The
balance of flow resistance reduction and heat transfer enhancement is the main objective of
microchannel heat sink optimization. Much research work has been done to explore the effect
of microchannel structure parameters [15], liquid characteristics [16,17], and phase change
process [18,19] on flow and heat transfer performance. Besides, the heat pipe and vapour
chamber as conduct heat devices are also commonly used in the thermal management of
electronic devices. Usually, the heat pipe and vapour chamber have similar working principles
like wick structures and two-phase flow and heat transfer process. Both of them would go
through the liquid evaporates in the hot end, and the vapour condenses in the cold end, then
the liquid is back to the hot end through the wick structure with the help of capillary force.
The heat transfer characteristics in the heat pipe and vapour chamber are typically one-
dimensional heat transport and two-dimensional heat spreading [20].
Nowadays, the miniaturization and high efficiency of the heat pipe and vapour chamber are a
research trend to be suitable for smaller-sized electronic devices like laptops or smartphones.
Many studies focus on this topic and they will be discussed in detail in this review article. In
addition, the thermoelectric (TE) cooler also is one of the feasible choices for the thermal
management of electronic devices. It has the advantages of noise-free, no pollution, and long
operating life, so many studies focus on optimising TE material to improve the cooler
working performance [21]. Moreover, the phase change material (PCM) cooling method is
also a potential thermal management technology. It is based on the principle of latent heat
storage, which maintains the temperature constant with the high energy storage density [22].
For electronic devices with pulsed heat flux density, the PCM-based heat sink can effectively
absorb the heat during pulse operation and return to the device for devices during low-
temperature operation, so electronic devices’ working temperature can be relatively stable. So
far, many studies have been conducted to optimise the structures of PCM-based heat sink
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[23], improve PCM characteristics [24], and consider combination with other kinds of thermal
management devices [25]. Overall, the background of electronic devices cooling is discussed
and overviewed. The present work comprehensively reviews the state-of-the-art methods of
thermal management for electronic devices, mainly focusing on active cooling. Considering
whether the cooling medium directly contacts with electronic devices as a criterion, the rest of
the review is divided into two parts:Section 2 introduces direct contact cooling, such as air
cooling in Section 2.1, spray cooling in Section 2.2, jet impingement cooling in Section 2.3,
immersion cooling in Section 2.4, and droplet electrowetting in Section 2.5. Then, Section 3 is
concerned with indirect contact cooling, and TIMs are introduced because of their significant
effect on cooling performance. iMcrochannel, heat pipe, and vapour chamber are discussed in
Sections 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, respectively. Besides, the TE cooler is introduced in Section 3.4 and
Section 3.5 discusses the method of PCM-based thermal management. Finally, the conclusion
and outlook of the thermal management methods for electronic componts and devices are
presented. This review article is expected to provide a useful reference for the research in
electronic
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CHAPTER-2
Direct contact with cooling fluid
2.1. Air cooling
The easiest way to achieve electronic thermal management is to use natural or free convection
cooling, which is an economical and convenient method. Based on this, Meng et al. [26] studied
the effect of mounting angle on the natural convection heat transfer. The results show that the
straight-fin heat sink has the best and worst cooling performance at the mounting angle of 90° and
15°, respectively. But as shown in Fig. 4, the radiation and free convection are just recommended
for heat dissipation lower than 1550 W/m2 heat flux density [27]. Therefore, for high-power
electronic devices, forced air or liquid cooling is more reliable. According to thermal management
methods, externally forced cooling can be divided into two scenarios.
First, the cooling fluid (air or liquid) directly acts on the surface of the electronic device. Second,
the heat is dissipated by an intermediate heat sink to expand the heat exchange area and further
enhance the heat transfer process. Nowadays, the study focus on natural cooling for electronic
devices are quite limited [28]. It may be due to the natural cooling method is a mature technology
for low-power electronics, such as TV or VCR [29]. For some thermal management areas, such as
data centres, forced liquid cooling (with or without phase change) is critical. Therefore, the
thermal management methods with the liquid as the cooling medium will be comprehensively
reviewed and discussed in this paper. 2.2.
Spray cooling Spray cooling is one of the most effective thermal management methods for high-
power electronic devices due to its high heat flux dissipation ability and sizeable cooling area [9].
It uses a nozzle to break down the cooling fluid into numerous tiny droplets by high pressure.
Then the droplets impact directly on the heated surface to achieve the effect of enhancing heat
transfer. As shown in Fig. 5, the practical spray cooling process can be divided into typical three
stages at different wall temperatures. The first stage is single-phase regime, in which wall
temperature maintains in a lower range and almost increases linearly, and no phase change occurs
in the cooling fluid essentially. Then, the spray cooling would be transitted to two-phase regime
with an increase of surface temperature, and the slope of the curve increases significantly. The
bubble nucleation process needs a great deal of energy to overcome the energy barrier that
enhances heat absorption.
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2
Fig. 4. The range of heat fluX density applies to conventional cooling methods.
The liquid film agitation caused by droplets impact also plays a role in improving heat
transfer performance. Finally, when the surface temperature increases to a specific
critical value, the heat fluX will stop to increase. Many factors and parameters can affect
the spray cooling. According to the spatial configuration of the spray cooling system,
these can be categorised into nozzle parameters, cooling fluid characteristics, and heating
surface properties. These parameters are coupled with each other over the influence of
the spray cooling system.
For spray cooling, the placement and structure of the nozzle have a critical influence
on heat transfer performance, and some parameters like inlet temperature, pressure or
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subcooling degree also make the impacts [31]. Therefore, many researchers have
carried out studies on it. Liu et al. [32] revealed that with the increase of pressure
difference of nozzle injection, the atomized droplets would be smaller, similar results
have also been obtained by other researchers [33], and it was reported that higher spray
pressure would help enhance heat transfer performance [34]. In addition, inlet
temperature of the nozzle is also proved to be able to significantly affect the heat
transfer performance of flash spray cooling [35]. Liu et al. [36] revealed that the cooling
capability would increase with spray frequency of cooling fluid under the same
temperature difference between the cooling fluid and the heating
Fig. 5. Heat Maps
surface. They also found that the pulsed spray cooling could increase specific heat fluX
compared with continuous spray cooling. Bao et al.
[37] used Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) system to observe the velocity distribution
of atomized droplets with different nozzle pore sizes, as shown in Fig. 6. They found
that the heat transfer performance increases with nozzle pore size, making the atomized
droplets velocity lower but more evenly distributed; it also increases with surface
coverage areas.
In the meanwhile, it is also found that the number of atomized droplets increases
with nozzle height [38], and the average diameter of the atomized droples decreases
with the hight [39]. Besides, many studies show that the relation between the cooling
effect and spray height is not linear. An optimum value is existed to achieve the best
heat transfer coefficient [40], and the optimum spray height decreases with the flow rate
[41]. Lin et al. [42] noticed that the spray height determines the spray droplet
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characteristics and coverage area, and the interaction of these parameters further affects
the cooling effect. They also revealed that the suitable nozzle orifice diameter needs to
ensure the spray to have enough mass flow and proper flow velocity at the same time.
Meanwhile, the tilt angle of the nozzle could also affect the heat transfer performance
[43]. Gao et al. [41] presented that the influence of nozzle inclination depends on
whether the change of nozzle tilt angle makes the flow fluX more significant or not.
In the practical thermal management process, the multi-nozzles spray cooling method
is commonly used. So the arrangement of multi- nozzle also has a significant influence
on the spray cooling process, such as the mean heat fluX increases with horizontal
spacing and nozzles off- set distance [44]. Jiang et al. [38] combined the cold plate and
linearly arranged multi-nozzles to propose a novel compact spray cooling module,
making maximum temperature difference of heat sources less than 6.5 °C when the heat
fluX was 304.70 W/cm2 . Xie et al. [45] suggested that compared with a large number of
nozzles, the small number nozzles with high flow mass will produce a more extensive
heat fluX. Hou et al. [46] carried out a study of numerical simulation and noted that the
heating surface heat fluX increased with nozzle numbers. Further-more, there is a
critical number when considering the performance and economic optimisationof a spray
cooling system.
As a medium for absorbing heat, the liquid thermal properties can have a significant
effect on spray cooling performance. Therefore, researchers have carried out studies on
various feasible cooling fluids, such as binary liquid (alcoholic liquid) [47], surfactants
solution [48], and nanofluid [49]. A binary solution is a commonly used method to
change the characteristics of the liquid. Liu et al. noted that the miXed ethanol and
pure liquid water could effectively improve heat transfer coefficient and reduce power
consumption.
However suggested that adding methanol to water could reduce heat flu X due to the
relatively high contact angle. So different kinds of organic compounds could have a
different effect on the cooling performance. In addition, the study shows that an
optimal value of surfactants added could be obtained to maximize the heat transfer effect
on binary liquid spray cooling The surfactants could make the liquid surface tension
reduce within a specific concentration range, so the droplets could wet the heating
surface better and improve the heat transfer ability It has also been proved that nanofluid
can enhance heat transfer coefficient for spray cooling
Moreover, the phase change process of liquid in spray cooling also poses an
excellent application prospective in electronic thermal management. Many studies
focus on low boiling point cooling fluid, such as R134a [55]. It is found that the
performance of flash spray cooling of this kind of working fluid improved with the
inlet temperature [35] or sub-cooling degree [39]. In addition, the Leidenfrost phe-
nomenon is also a matter of concern, which caused the thin vapour film between the
heating surface and liquid droplets, and would worse the heat transferperformance.
Thus, lots of studies have focused on how to suppress this phenomenon. Recently,
Limbeek et al. [56] conducted a study on the influence of ambient conditions on the
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Leidenfrost temperature and revealed the droplet changing regimes under different
substrate temperatures, as shown in Fig. 7. They also reveal that the Lei-denfrost
temperature would increase with ambient pressure. Liang et al.
summarized the mathematical models about the Leidenfrost temperature in their
review paper. The detailed introduction to the Leiden- frost phenomenon is not the
focus of this review article. More research progress can refer to the review paper
published by Zhong et al. [57] and Talari et al. [58].
The physical characteristics of the heating surface also have a significant effect on
thermal management performance. Many researchers have reported that surface
roughness could help improve spray cooling performance [39,59]. Chen et al. [60]
carried out numerical simulations and pointed that compared with liquid temperature, spray
pressure, nozzle height, and wall temperature have the most apparent effect on heat
transfer. Recently, Zhao et al. [61] have found that the effect of surface orientation
(such as upward, downward, and vertical) on spray cooling is not significant. Wang et
al. [62] found that the micro-structured hydrophobic surfaces could effectively
improvethe rate of spray cooling and bubble removal. Zhou et al. [63] prepared the
macro-structured and the nano-porous flat surface, as shown in Fig. 8. They found that
the fins macro-structured surface could effectively improve heat transfer performance
compared with a smooth flat surface; and this may be because of the increase of the
contact area, nucleation sites, and wettability at the same time. Likewise, Xu et al. [64]
indicated that types of micro- and nano-structured surfaces could enhance the heat
transfer performance of the spray cooling effectively. Xu et al. [65] and Ekkad et al.
[66] reviewed and discussed the effects of surface properties and structures on spray
cooling performance.
In summary, spray cooling is proven to be an effective solution of thermal
management for high-power electronic devices. Structural parameters of nozzles and
physical properties of working fluid affect the
Fig. 6. Commonly used microstructures in the microchannel heat transfer

enhancement (a) dimple [171]; (b) pin-fin [172]; (c) rib [173]; (d) groove [174]; (e)
cavities [175]; (f) vortex generator [176]; (g) interrupted wall [177]; (h) metal foam
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spray cooling performance. Meanwhile, spray cooling has its shortcom- ings, such as
high-pressure operating conditions and clogging of the nozzle during practical operation.
Understanding the heat transfer mecha- nisms of spray or film nucleate boiling is still
lacking [67]. In some par- ticular fields, such as aerospace, the influence of gravity on
the spray cooling performance also lacks understanding [68]. Therefore, there is still a
great deal of research worth of studying to further improve the efficiency and reliability
of spray cooling.
2.2 Jet impingement cooling

Jet impingement cooling is one of effective cooling methods with relatively low
thermal resistance; and has widely been employed as r thermal management solutions
for power electronics devices and industry. A schematic diagram of distinction of air-
jet impingement regions is shown in Fig. 9. The jet impingement cooling process is
similar to spray cooling but does not need droplet atomization. Nevertheless, the fluid
flow and heat transfer mechanism is still very complex. Many studies have been carried
out to understand jet impingement cooling mechanism and improve the heat transfer
performance. Like spray cooling, research on the application of jet impingement
cooling and heat transfer enhancement is also carried out from the nozzle
configurations, liquid properties and surface structures.
Nozzle parameters and arrangements have a significant effect on the jet impingement
cooling performance. Tepe et al. [70] revealed that the extension of the jet hole could
enhance the heat transfer process and alleviate the negative effects of crossflow and
eliminate misalignment of impinging areas. Through numerical simulation, Sabato et
al. [71] studied
the influence of jet numbers, nozzle diameter and arrangement on the cooling
performance. They found that with the increase of jet numbers, the marginal heat
transfer could be improved, but the pumping power was also rising, and the heat transfer
was enhanced with the reduction of nozzle diameter. Wu et al. [72] also found that the
heat transfer coefficient of jet impingement cooling decreased with nozzle diameter
increasing. Wen et al. [73] pointed that the nozzle geometry and arrangement defined
the jet momentums under serious cross-sections and whole flow field complexity,
respectively. For jet impingement cooling, the best cooling effect is concentrated in the
central impinging area but rapidly declining when moving away from this area. Hence,
multiple jets arrangement is often using to address this issue [74]. Besides, they also
revealed that multi-jet cooling could be more effective than single-jet cooling by the
experimental research, as shown in Fig. 10 [75].
In addition, the performance jet impingement cooling is normally largely relevant to
working fluid or liquid thermal proiperties. Wu et al.
[76] used paraffin to fabricate particulate form of nano PCM and add them into water as
the cooling medium. The results showed that the heat transfer coefficient could be
improved by 50% compared with water for jet impingement cooling. Rehman et al. [77]
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completed a simulation of using PCM slurry and nanofluid as cooling medium. The
results showed that the addition of PCM and nanoparticles can enhance heat transfer
capability and decrease ethe stagnation point temperature, but result in an increase of
pressure drop. They also reported that the PCM slurry could not only improve heat
transfer performance but also reduce pressure drop compared with nanofluid under the
same jet velocity and particle loading. Selimefendigilet al. [78] compared the influence
of four nanoparticle shapes (spherical, blade, brick, and cylindrical) on the jet
impingement cooling performance. The results showed that cylindrical nanoparticles
show the best heat transfer performance in terms of Nusselt number. Ekiciler et al. [79]
also pointed that the shape of nanoparticles could affect jet impingement cooling. Modak et
al. [80] indicated that jet impingement cooling Nusselt number increases with the
nanoparticle concentration and Reynolds number. Meanwhile, the
Fig. 19. SEM photograph of (a) copper foam; (b) mesh partial; (c) enlarged view of
UTHP; (d) cross-section view of UTHP
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sediment of nanoparticles on the surface could enhance wettability. For more information about
nanofluid jet impingement cooling, it can be referred to the review article recently published by
Mohammadpour et al. [81]. For jet impingement boiling, there are many methods reported, which
could improve heat fluX, such as modification of heat transfer surface [82,83], improvement of
fluid properties [84], optimization of nozzle structures [85], and other methods [86,87]. The
readers could also refer to the review articles published by Devahdhanush et al. [88] and Fan et al.
[89], which introduce various ways for improving the critical heat fluX of jet impingement boiling
and the factors that could influence jet impingement boiling in details.
Furthermore, the effect of electronic devices’ surface material and properties on jet
impingement cooling have been studied by a few researchers recently. Wei et al. [90]
found that compared with cooling substrate or base plate, direct cooling for the
backside of electronic device was more effective. Selimefendigil et al. [78] pointed that
corru- gated surfaces had a minor effect on the heat transfer enhancement than flat
surface at low Reynolds number. However, the Nu would increase about 6.99–8.87%
athigh Reynolds number. Wang et al. [75] studied on finned heat sinks and reported
that the copper foam could positively affect jet impingement cooling performance.
Wiriyasart et al. [91] applied jet impingement to cool heating surfaces with rectangular,
circular, and conical micro pin-fins, respectively; and their results showed that the
circular micro-pin-fins could offer better heat transfer enhancement.
In short, like spray cooling, jet impingement cooling also could be an up-and-coming
option for thermal management of high-power electronics, owing to its effective heat
transfer performance, lower thermal resistance, and simple system. However, jet
impingement cooling faces some issues that need to be deal with. One apparent
shortcoming of single-phase jet impingement cooling is that a significant surface
temperature fluctuation due to heat transfer coefficient away from the stagnation zone
drops drastically. The flow obstruction between closely spaced multiple jets would also
impact the cooling performance under some specific conditions.
Fig. 10. (a) EXperimental devices; (b) cross-section of the chip-level jet
impingement cooler; (c) schematic diagram of the thermal test chip with temperature
sensors and heater cells; (d and e) temperature distribution map of the single-jet and
multi-jet (4 × 4) impingement cooling based on the experimental measure results
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2.3 Immersion cooling
Immersion cooling is one of the effective thermal management meth ods. It uses dielectric
fluid or coolant with good thermal conductivity and very poor electric conductivity
properties, immersing the electronic devices to achieve cooling. Immersion cooling has
been widely used to cool like data centres [12] and servers [13]. The commonly used
coolants are listed in Table 1. Wang et al. [92] proposed a hybrid cooling method to
combine spray cooling and immersion cooling. They found that the hybrid cooling
method improved the heat fluX by up to 65.6% under certain conditions than traditional
spray cooling. Similarly, Patil et al. [93] also pointed that the immersion cooling of
flowing dielectric fluid could improve the cooling performance by about 46% com-
pared with natural convection. As mentioned above, many studies use dielectric fluid as
cooling fluids but not water due to its poor insulation properties. However, as shown in
Fig. 11(a–e), Birbarah et al. [94] by coating Parylene C on the printed circuit board
(PCB), made immersion cooling with water and water-ethylene glycol liquid be
possible. They said that the water always has a better heat transfer coefficient for
both natural convection and nucleate pool boiling than dielectric fluid.
Much research has been conducted and shown that immersion cooling is also an
effective thermal management solution for power electronic devices [95,96].Methods to
enhance the heat transfer of immersion cooling has also been reported. Hsu et al. [97]
fabricated three kinds of surface, namely Si nanowire (SiNW), Si micropillar (SiMP),
and two-tier Si nanowires combining with Si micropillar (SiNW/MP) to help enhance
the heat transfer pf immersion cooling. They found that compared with the usual plain
SiO2 surface, the SiNW/MP surface improved the critical heat fluX and heat transfer
coefficient by 30% and 455%, respectively. Besides, other methods, such as Taguchi
Method optimization [98], microporous Cu coating [99], Baffle layout [100], and
applying nanofluid [101] are also studied and reported. It has been proved that all these
methods could help improve heat transfer performance of immersion cooling
performance. In addition, the safety and stability of immersion cooling have also
attracted muchattention from both academic society and industry. Ramdas et al. [102]
found that immersion cooling would not damage the PCB. Ali et al. [99] carried out
numerical simulations and reported that the Von-Mises stress of chips cooled by
immersed dielectric liquid was always within safety limits in their simulations.
Immersion cooling can efficiently cool electronic devices but have some issues that
need to be handled. For example, one study has suggested that the fluff floating in the
coolant could be adsorbed on the heat exchange surface, which could suppress the
cooling efficiency [107]. The balance between electric insulation and thermal
conductivity of the coolant is also an important research topic for immersion cooling.
Mean- while, further research is still needed to address the ageing of electronic devices
with various coolants.
2.4Droplet electrowetting
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Electrowetting, which is one of the effective methods to control wetting phenomena
of droplets, has been widely studied in scientific and industrial communities [108].
Electrocapillary, the electrowetting phenomenon cornerstone, was first proposed in
1875 by Gabriel Lippmann [109]. The equation used to describe the relation between
electric field effect and droplet contact angle is called the Young–Lippmann equation,
where 𝜃𝑒𝑞 is the equilibrium contact angle when the external voltage is zero, and C is the
capacitance per unit area, V is voltage for direct current electrowetting, and V2 should change to
𝑉 2 𝑒𝑓 𝑓 (effective voltage) for alternating current electrowetting. Nowadays, the droplet
electrowetting phenomenon has seen more application in the thermal management of electronic
devices. One of the representatives is EWOD (Electrowetting on Dielectric) technology [111],
which has the advantages like quick response [112], hot-spot cooling [113], and low energy
consumption (no pressure drop) [114]. As shown in Fig. 12, the main heat transfer enhancement
methods of EWOD are divided into changing wettability, controlling fluid movement and
enhancing phase change heat transfer. Xu et al. [115] studied the process mechanism of the
droplet from stationary to motion from the perspectives of EWOD characteristics and polarization
theory. They indicated that there are three stages to make the motion of the droplet, which is the
change of the contact angle and surface tension, the deformation of the droplet, and the generation
of large enough hydrostatic pressure difference. Bahadur et al. [116] reported that the voltage for
electrowetting could change the wetting state of the droplet (such as Cassie-Baxter state or
Wenzel state); and in their study, a simplified prediction model of droplet movement based on the
energy minimization principle was developed. Through combining the effect of electrowetting
and thermocapillary, Pamula et al. [117] recorded the phenomenon that the tiny droplets
automatically move to the hot spots; and they suggested that this is owing to the temperature
difference induced surface tension changes. Park et al. [118] studied two-phase droplet
electrowetting cooling on a single plate EWOD configuration, which could improve the heat
transfer effectively compared with the traditional single phase. The hot spot temperature
decreased from 172 °C to below 100 °C in 475 s. For more thermal management studies on
droplet electrowetting, the review paper recently by Yan et al. [119]. In terms of how to improve
droplet electrowetting heat transfer, a few research works can be identified. Cheng et al.
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Fig. 11. (a and b) Schematic diagram of immersion cooling of PCB; (c–e) under the
different heat fluX conditions the generation of bubbles taken by high-speed camera
[94].
Fig. 12. (a) Schematic diagram of electrowetting principle [120]; (b) the influence of
electrowetting on the wetting state (left: Cassie state, right: Wenzel state) [116]; (c)
based on the electrowetting to move droplets to hot spots [121]; (d) improve the
boiling heat transfer by electrowetting
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Fig. 13. (a) Schematic diagram of contact thermal resistance; (b) the use of TIM.
reported their work of coating the copper screen to improve the effect of cooling, in which droplet
splitting and merging to make thin-film existence on the target region to control thin-film
evaporation on the hydrophilic surface. Bindiganavale et al. [123] suggested out that the effect of
EWOD phase change cooling could be improved by using super hydrophilic nanoporous coating,
promoting the emergence of thin-film and then enhancing heat transfer. Sur et al. [122] proposed
an alternating current electrowetting (ACEW) method to improve boiling heat transfer. In
addition, the efforts of using CNT (Carbon nanotubes) to EWOD were also made in the studies;
and the researchers found that it could help reduce the resistance of droplet friction effectively
[124]. Papathanasiou et al. [125] conducted a review about the effect of surface design on
electrowetting. It was shown that other cooling liquids would also improve the heat transfer
performance. The liquid alloy droplet could be a choice for the electrowetting cooling, and the
heat transfer rate could be increased by two orders of magnitude compared with water [126].
Chakraborty et al. [127] rereportd the application of nanofluid to improve the dynamic changes
ofdroplet contact angle, contact radius, and amplitude; and suggested thatthe morphology changes
of the droplet could increase the disturbance inside the droplet then improve heat transfer. Even
though the droplet electrowetting cooling method is a novel and valuable method, it still faces
many challenges for further improving the cooling capability and application range. For example,
the velocity of droplet transport could be improved to lift the limitation n cooling capability of
high power electronic devices nel structures is mainly classified based on the changes of structural
parameters of microchannels (such as material type, surface treatment, and channel configuration,
etc.) and combined with other enhanced heat transfer structures (such as pin-fin structure, porous
medium, and vortex generator, etc.). Firstly, it is accepted that the materials of microchannel heat
sinks significantly influence cooling performance. Koşar et al. [140] analysed the heat sink
material like Si, Cu, Steel, Glass, Quartz, and Polyimide through numerical simulations.
They found that Nu decreases with lower thermal conductivity material. Muhammad et al. [141]
compared different materials such as copper, aluminium, tungsten, and silicon, and found that
higher thermal conductivity materials offer better cooling performance; and the conclusions are
consistent with [142,143]. Sarowar et al. [144] have recently studied microchannel heat sinks
based on ultra-high temperature ceramics (UHTCs) materials HfB2, TiB2, and ZrB2, and
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concluded that the UHTCs materials canbe effectively applied to microchannel heat sinks and the
HfB2 presentes better cooling performance. More information about microchannel fabrication and
material selections the review paper published by Prakash et al. [145] may be referred. As a mode
of forced convection heat transfer process, the channel surface properties of microchannel cooling
considerably affect the performance and quality of thermal management. How will the surface
roughness caused by machining process affect the fluid flow and heat transfer is shown in [159].
A general positive effect on the heat transfer under single-phase microchannel flow is reported in
[146]. Recently proposed a method for optimising microchannel surface roughness by simulated
annealing; which could ensure the optimal heat transfer performance under the specific pressure
drop condition. also reported their results of that the surface roughness could affect the heat
transfer coefficients and pressure drop of the microchannel flow boiling under appropriate
conditions. Moreover, the concept of bionic has been applied to microchannel surface design.
fabricated a bionic surface based on dragon louse wing, and achieved drag reduction by 35.4%
compared with smooth surface.
So far, the concept of surface wettability has been widely studied and applied to heat and mass
transfer processes [150]; its effect on microchannel cooling has also been studied extensively. On
bionic approaches, hydrophobic and superhydrophobic surfaces have been to microchannels to
reduce wall share stress and pressure drop effectively [151,152]. Rahbarshahlan et al. [153]
numerically simulated the effect of a hybrid surface of hydrophobic and hydrophilic, the results
showed that the horizontal pattern has better heat transfer performance than the longitudinal
pattern. In addition, the surfaces of hydrophobic and heterogeneous wettability could help
enhance boiling heat transfer [154,155], and the horizontal pattern could enhance flow boiling and
reduce pressure drop of microchannels [156]. As for the microchannel structures, many
researchers have reported that the significant effect of channel shape on cooling performance.
Firstly, inlet shape of microchannel can affect heat transfer and hydraulic performance has been
proved [157,158]. Gunnasegaran et al. [159] reported that the microchannel of rectangular cross-
section offered the best cooling performance compared the channels with trapezoidal and
triangular sections. Also, some studies suggested that the circular cross-section shape posed better
heat transfer capability than the square and rectangular ones [160,161]. Therefore, it is necessary
to conduct in-depth and comprehensive studies to understand the effect of microchannel inlet with
different cross-section on heat transfer and hydraulic performance. In addition, double-layer
microchannel can offer more effective cooling performance [162]. In terms of the design of
microchannels, more uniform cooling capability and temperature distribution, like the manifold
layout, often plays an essential role in controlling flow distribution, as shown in Fig. 15.
The study on the manifold design can better guide the layout of flow channel and realize the
balance of flow resistance reduction and heat transfer enhancement. For more information of
manifold design and study, review articles [163,164] could be referred. In general, there are many
methods for changing and optimising the shapes or confugrations of microchannels. For example,
compared with conventional straight channels, wavy channels can provide better heat transfer
capability [165,166]. Some studies focus on the design of microchannel structures to improve heat
transfer performance. The common feature of these designs or optimizations is to increase the
disturbance of the boundary layers. It was proved that the perturbation of the thermal boundary
layer could enhance the fluid flow heat transfer [167]. Thus, as shown in Fig. 16, many
microstructures have been applied to microchannel optimizations, these include dimple or
protrusions surface, pin-fin structure, rib, groove, cavities, vortex generator, interrupted wall, and
metal foam, etc. Other review articles, such as [168–170] about design of microchannel structures
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and optimisation of microchannel heat sinks should also be viewed. As mentioned above, the
design of channel structures has played an essential role in enhancing the process of flow and heat
transfer in microchannels. On this basis, the other factors of convective heat transfer process in
the channel, such as working fluid thermal proiperties and phase change process, also
significantly influence the cooling performance. In addition to water (or deionized water), the
most commonly used working liquid in microchannel cooling, various other types of fluid, such
as refriegerants and nonafluids, have been applied to microchannel heat transfer. Probably,
nanofluid is the one that has drawn much attention from academic or industrial societies, as its
higher thermal conductivity [196,197],so it has been widely implemented to improve
microchannel heat transfer performance [179]. In fact, the base fluids still largely affect
microchannel cooling performance of nanofluids. Recently, Li et al. [180] applied carbon-acetone
nanofluid into microchannel cooling, and found that the carbon-acetone nanofluid increased heat
transfer coefficient by 73%, as carbon nanoparticle enhanced the thermal properties of acetone.
Lyu et al. [181] compared the water and kerosene as base liquid, and reported that the kerosene
did not contribute to the enhancement of flow and heat transfer performance. Shamsuddin et al.
[182] reported their experimental results and suggested that adding surfactants could reducee
microchannel pressure drop under certain conditions without negatively impacting heat transfer
capability. In short, the above studies show that the effect of the base liquid of nanofluid is still
worth studying in-depth. Up to now, the nanofluid still faces some issues that need to be solved
seriously, like clogging, fouling, and corrosion of microchannel [169].
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CHAPTER-3
Indirect contact with cooling fluid
In the previous part of the article, thermal management methods about direct contact of the
cooling fluid have been reviewed. This part will focus on indirect contact cooling, which means
the cooling medium dissipates the heat combined with the external heat sink structure. It is worth
mentioning that the air gap between the electronic device and heat sink surfaces, as shown in Fig.
13(a), significantly impacts the heat removal process. Therefore, thermal interface materials
(TIMs), as shown in Fig. 13(b), are an effective medium that fill the gap between the surfaces and
provide better heat transfer.
Nowadays, many solutions have been proposed for improving the thermal conductivity of TIMs,
such as adding nanoparticles using carbon nanotube arrays (CNTs) [131,132], continuous metal
phase [133]. There are various TIMs has been developed, and they can be divided into three
categories [134], namely: filler-based (grease, adhesives, etc.), metal/solder (alloys, metallic foils,
etc.), and carbon-based (graphene, graphite, etc.). As the progress of TIMs research is beyond the
scope of this work, more detailed information can be referred to the articles mentioned above. 3.1.
Microchannel cooling In 1981, the microchannel heat sink method was proposed by Tuckerman
and Pease for the first time [135].
Mehendale et al. [136] and Kandlikar et al. [137] defined microchannel of hydraulic diameter
ranged from 1 to 100 𝜇m and 10 to 200 𝜇m, respectively. The microchannel heat sink has a strong
heat dissipation capability that reaches more than 1000 W/cm2 [135] and better temperature
uniformity after optimization [138]; and a typical microchannel heat sink applied for thermal
management of chipis shown in Fig. 14(a–d). Thus, as shown in Fig. 14(e), the study about
microchannel cooling gradually draw more attention to researchers, and the factors that could
affect the microchannel cooling capability have been extensively studied. In this section, the
studies about microchannel cooling are divided into two aspects: microchannel structure and
cooling fluid properties; and hope these could give a general introduction to the research of
microchannel cooling. About microchannel cooling research, many studies focus on the design of
microchannel structures because of the significant effects on flow and heat transfer process. In
this review, the optimization of micro mechanism.
Fig. 14. Microchannel heat sink example (a) microchannel structure details;
(b) microchannel flow visualization; (c) back-side of the heat sink; (d) IR temperature
map (e) The number of published articles that the article title, abstract, keywords contain
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“microchannel” (blue line) or “microchannel” and “cooling” (red bar) from 2011 to 2020
based on the database of Scopus®. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure
For more information of nanofluids applied to microchannel cooling, review articles
[17,183–188] may be referred. As one type of coolants, liquid metal has some unique
thermal properties compared with conventional cooling fluid. For example, the thermal
conductivity of water is about 0.6 W/m•K. but the liquid metal Ga68In20Sn12 could
reach 39 W/m•K [189] and has broader temperature adaptability. Therefore, liquid metal
is suitable for thermal management of high heat flux electronic devices. It was used in
heat pipe for space power cooling decades ago [190], and has also been used in chip
cooling first in 2002 by Liu and Zhou [191].
So far, the use of liquid metal in the microchannel have been widely studied. Sarafraz et
al. [192] found that even though the pressure drop increased after adding Indium into
Gallium, the cooling performance was improved due to the increase of gallium-indium
eutectic mixture thermal conductivity. Sarowar et al. [193] also reported their results
bycomparing with other gallium alloys like EGaInSn, EGaIn and GaSn, and found that
the GaIn have the best cooling performance for microchannel applications. Muhammad et
al. [141,194] indicated that thermal conductivity and specific heat of liquid metal are key
factors affecting the cooling performance of microchannel heat sink. They also compared
various Ga alloys like EGaInSn, EGaIn, GaSn and GaIn, and found that the EGaInSn
coolant introduced the highest microchannel pump power. Therefore, although, liquid metal
could offer higher heat transfer capability than water and nanofluid, it often has highest pump
power consumption. Indeed, liquid metal has its problems. It may cause corrosion to the
microchannel heat sink and affect the safety of electronic equipment, so careful further research is
still needed for material selections and flow design. As mentioned above, the method of single-
phase microchannel cooling has successfully targeted the thermal management of electronic
devices. However, the capability of single-phase flow microchannel cooling is not sufficient for
electronic devices with higher heat flux. Therefore, making the coolant undergoing a phase
change process such as flow boiling can effectively improve the capability of microchannel
cooling [195]. Due to the latent heat of boiling can dissipate the heat flux and keep wall
temperature uniform under low flow rate [196],. several methods have been developed to enhance
the capability of heat transfer by the mode of microchannel flow boiling; and these can be divided
into microchannel structure optimization and working fluid modification. Recently, Oudah et al.
[197] proposed a microchannel inlet restrictors structure, which could improve the critical heat
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flux (CHF) of the microchannel heat sink due to the inhibition of instability, but it also caused the
increase of pressure drop significantly. This was also noticed by Ren et al. [198], who proposed a
method for fabricating parallel microgroove in the microchannel, as shown in Fig. 17. Thus, the
flow boiling instabilities could be controlled effectively and both the CHF and heat transfer
coefficient (HTC) could be improved by up to 155% and 72%, respectively, without affecting
pressure drop. Hedau et al. [199] found that the cooling capability declined with the decrease of
channel number, which means the increase of channel width, lead to the bubble confinement
effect and increased liquid film thickness. Hou et al. [200,201] proposed a thermal test vehicle
fabricated in the PCB grooves and could significantly improve the heat dissipation capacity of the
heat sink. Based on their experimental results.
Proposed a simple 1-D model that could evaluate the effect of channel dimensions or thermofluid
conditions on the upper bound of pressure fluctuations amplitude and flow reversals. Vontas et al.
[203] applied volume of fluid (VOF) method to simulate the effect of microchannel surface
wettability on the flow boiling characteristics. The results showed that wettability presented a
crucial impact on HTC, and the liquid film evaporation and contact line evaporation played the
dominant role in the hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces, respectively. Lin et al. [156] also
found that heterogeneous wetting surface could help improve the HTC by 39.55%. The effect of
microstructure on microchannel flow boiling also attracted the attention of researchers.
Deng et al. [223] proposed an open-ring pin fin for microchannel and found that it could improve
heat transfer performance and suppress the instabilities of flow boiling when it is inline arranged.
Tiwari et al. [204] reported that the wavy wall microchannel would have better heat transfer
performance than the straight wall and suppress two-phase flow instabilities. In the meantime, the
external field could also affect the boiling heat transfer, Zu et al. [205] pointed out that the electric
field applied to the boiling bubble can promote the vortices motion, enhancing the wall heat
transfer process. In addition, the effect of nanofluid on flow boiling also be conducted. Soleimani
et al. [206] simulated the nanofluid two phase flow boiling in the microchannel, and found that
the addition of nanoparticlescould not significantly improve heat transfer performance. Zhang et
al. [207] experimentally studied the graphene oxide nanofluid flow boiling in microchannel and
found that graphene oxide leads to the generation of nonporous deposition, which may block
active nucleation sites and deteriorate heat transfer performance. Therefore, the significance of
using nanofluids in microchannel flow boiling needs further study and discussion.
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For more information about microchannel flow boiling, heat transfer enhancement and inhibition
of instability, floowing review articles [18,19,208–213] should be helpful. Microchannel cooling
has been proven to be a very effective thermal management method for high-power electronic
devices. There is a great deal of research on microchannel cooling every year. Up to now, the
optimal design of microchannel has been studied in-depth, but fabricated microchannel is still
plagued by machining accuracy, manufacturing costs and process simplicity. The fabrication
methods of microchannels also need improvement. The critical parameters of microchannel heat
sinks, such as material, size, flow channel layout, and microstructure placement, also the general
method of optimizing design are all need to be explored. Although nanofluids applied to
microchannel could help enhance cooling ability, after a certain period of working, the deposition
of nanoparticles is still a thorny problem that needs to be solved, leading to clogging
inmicrochannels, making it ineffective and even damaging electronic devices. Flow boiling is
certainly an effective way for enhancing heat transfer, but more feasible methods for reducing
flow resistance and suppressing two-phase instability are worthy of further exploration. 3.2. Heat
pipe As an efficient heat exchange device, heat pipes have attracted wide range of attentions from
heat and mass transfer society since it was patented by Gaugler in 1944 [214]. The basic
structures and working principles of the heat pipe are as shown in Fig. 18(a). Heat pipes have
been widely used in the thermal management of high-power electronic devices due to its simple
structure, high reliability, and efficient heat transfer capability [215]. Attributable to the
continuous improvement of the manufacturing process, the ultra-thin heat pipe (UTHP) can also
be fabricated and used in the electronic device, as shown in Fig. 18(b–c). A number of methods
have been developed and employed for improving the heat transfer performance of heat pipes.
From the perspective of structural optimization, the wicking structure has been studied
dramatically due to its essential role in flow and heat transfer inside the heat pipe. Shioga et al.
[218] proposed a new manufacturing method that could erase the gap between the evaporator
container inner wall and the wick and suppress the evaporator container vapour leakage. Zhou et
al. [219,220] proposed a series of spiral woven mesh (SWM) wick, which could realize the
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balance of increasing heat transfer capability and reducing structural weight for the UTHP. They
also proposed a kind of composite wick structure composed of copper foam and mesh, as shown
in Fig. 19(a–d), which had the favourable characteristics of better heat transfer performance and
mechanical strength at the same time [221]. Chen et al. [222] also proposed a kind of surface
functional wicks which could provide better capillary performance to guarantee the excellent heat
dissipation capability of the UTHP. Wang et al. [223] inspired from the principle of mimicking
biology and biomimetics to propose a novel hierarchical wick structure for the heat pipe and
proposed a mathematical model to describe the capillary pressure and capillary rise rate. Li et al.
[224] developed a kind of process that fabricated the superhydrophilic copper mesh wick for the
flat plate heat pipe. Comparing with the pure copper sheet or pyrolytic graphite flake, this kind of
heat pipe increased the effective thermal conductivity by 80 and 36 times, respectively. In
addition, the inclination angle is an essential parameter that affects the heat pipe heat transfer
performance and many studies considered that. Zhang et al. [225] pointed that the extra wicking
structure enhanced the heat transfer performance under smaller inclination angles (30° and 60°)
compared with the heat pipe without a wick. But under the vertical condition, the smooth heat
pipe presented lower thermal resistance and temperature difference. Yao et al. [226] also found
that the inclination angle significantly affected the cooling capability of the micro heat pipe. The
effective thermal conductivity decreased from 5820 to 295 W/m•K when the inclination angle
change from 90° to −75° Further, Li et al. [227] also noticed that the sintered porous wicking
structure ensured adequate capillary pressure and protection com pared with no sintering. Hence,
the porous wicking structure can counteract the influence of centrifugal accelerations to a certain
extent and make the heat pipe maintain better heat load. Besides, there are other studies contribute
to optimize the structure of the heat pipe.
Nanoparticles to coat the evaporator which can enhance the heat transfer due to the boiling
process was stimulated. Ling et al. [229] based on the constructal law designed a novel leaf-
shaped oscillating heat pipes which posed a certain degree of heat transfer enhancement effect. In
addition, the working fluid of the heat pipe also influences the thermal performance. Sardarabadi
et al. [230] revealed that the nanofluid combined with the sodium functional group could improve
thermal performance. Xu et al. [231] indicated that the mixture of DI water and HFE-7100 could
improve the heat transfer limits of heat pipes. Ramkumar et al. [232] also pointed that acetone
could improve the heat transfer coefficient by 79.81% and reduce the thermal resistance by
10.52% compared with methanol as a working fluid. Meanwhile, the filling ratio of the working
fluid in the heat pipe also has a significant effect on the cooling capability [233,234], and Zhou et
al. [221] pointed that higher or lower filling ratios may cause the deterioration of the heat transfer
effect owing to the increase of thermal resistances. Furthermore, the analysis of working
conditions of the heat pipe is also of great significance to the application of heat pipe. Werner et
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al. [235] pointed out that the thermal resistance can be used as an indicator to determine the heat
pipe boiling limit occurrence. Wang et al. [236] based artificial neural network (ANN) method
proposed a model which could predict the thermal resistance of the pulsating heat pipe under
various working conditions directly. A more detailed introduction of the heat pipe can refer to
review articles published in recent years [237–239].
The heat pipe is an effective thermal management method, and its advantages are beyond doubt.
However, the heat pipe also faces some issues that need to be handled. First, to improve capillary
and heat transfer performance, the wicking structure needs to find more optimized design methods
and manufacturing processes, like hydrophilic surface treatment and multiscale fabrication. In
addition, the UTHP has a wide range of application prospects under the trend of flattening and
flexible electronic devices. Therefore, the design of UTHP needs to continuously improve its
structural stability and keep the balance between heat transfer enhancement and portability. The
challenges for material selection and structural design, as well as the universal design guide are all
worthy of being considered. As both shell material selection and the combination quality of wick
and shell also significantly affect the working ability and stability of heat pipes, the optimization
of material and packaging technology should be full of opportunities. Moreover, the artificial
intelligence technology has also been applied to heat pipes design, and the optimization of its
learning and calculation methods is worth of further study. 3.3. Vapour chamber Vapour chamber,
as a heat dissipation structure, has been used for thermal management of electronic devices. The
vapour chamber has advantages of favourable temperature uniformity, suitable for devices with
high heat flux, large surface area, and high reliability. Its basic structures and working principle
are shown in Fig. 20. The vapour chamber is usually an enclosed space, and the bottom side of the
steam chamber is in contact with the heat source. The working fluid is heated to evaporate and
diffuse to the upper-side condensing surface, and then the steam is re-condensed on the upper
side. Finally, the working liquid is absorbed by the wick material again and distributed to the heat
source through capillary force. By repeating this process cyclically, the heat dissipation process of
the electronic device is realized.
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Fig. 21. (a) Cross-section view of UTVC with micropillar and copper mesh wick; (b and c)
SEM image of liquid and vapour channel of UTVC [245]; (d–g) SEM image of copper powder
with size of 265 ± 85, 143 ± 37, 90 ± 15, and 66 ± 9 𝜇m, respectively; (h) SEM image of
the copper foam
Although both the vapour chamber and heat pipe are based on the two-phase flow and heat
transfer of working liquid, the difference between them can normally be identified from their
applications.s. The heat pipe is used for unidirectional or one-dimensional heat transfer from the
heat source to the cold source. But the vapour chamber is more used for making the two-
dimensional heat spreading to the external heat sink. Materials usually being selected for the
fabrication of vapour chamber include copper, which has excellent thermal conductivity,
aluminium with lightweight and lower cost, and silicon, which can mitigate the coefficient of
thermal expansion mismatch between the semiconductor die and the heat sink. Like the heat pipe,
the wick structure of the vapour chamber also plays a significant role in the internal fluid heat and
mass transfer process, affecting the overall cooling performance. Peng and Liu et al. [241,242]
based on the biomimetic method, proposed a leaf-vein-like fractal network for the wick of the
vapour chamber. The results showed that this kind of leaf-vein system could make the thermal
resistance smaller and have a favourable ability of temperature uniformity at the same time.
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And also, there are studies showing that fabricating the tree-shape and leaf venation groove on the
Fig. 22. (a) Schematic diagram of the integrated circuit packaging; (b) vapour chamber
working
process with IGBT heated; (c) IGBT prototype integrated with vapour chamber; (d) the
temperature distribution in IGBT under the condition of chip power loss and diode
power loss evaporator surface could bring a similar heat transfer enhancement effect [243,244].
Chen et al. [245] combined the micropillar and copper mesh wick structure to propose a novel
ultra-thin vapour chamber (UTVC), as shown in Fig. 21(a– c). The results have shown that this
kind of UTVC can have 30 times stronger thermal conductivity than pure copper, and the change
of maximum heat transfer performance would be less than 11% under reverse gravity. Li et al.
[246] experimentally studied the effect of copper powder and foam wick on the thermal
performance of the vapour chamber, which can be seen in Fig. 21(d–h). They pointed out that the
copper foam improved temperature uniformity, but the copper powder was more effective in
reducing thermal resistance. Velardo et al. [247] proposed a kind of hybrid wick structures, screen
mesh and sintered powder combined wicks, which are better than the copper heat sink
significantly. The porous sintering wick sheet has also been proved to improve the heat transfer
performance [248]. Meanwhile, the thickness of wicks can affect the temperature rise of the
vapour chamber. It’s best to reduce their thickness as much as possible and avoid affecting the
strength [249]. Wang et al. [250] revealed that the appropriate configuration of the vapour
chamber evaporator and condenser wick porosity should make the maximum pressure drop in the
wick close to but not exceed the maximum capillary pressure, then the better cooling effect could
be obtained. They also pointed that make the wick porosity of the evaporator a bit larger than the
condenser can promote the circulating flow of liquid. Patankar et al. [251] conducted notable
research on the condenser-side wick structure for improving temperature uniformity. The
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biporous wick structure they proposed could make the peak-to-mean temperature of the vapour
chamber surface decrease up to 37%. The mesh wick structure also can relieve the fluctuation of
wall temperature [244]. Besides, other structural parameters of the vapour chamber also could
affect the cooling capability. As shown in Fig. 22(a–d), Chen et al. [252,253] designed to combine
the vapour chamber with the direct bonded copper (DBC) through the Sn–Pb material. They
found that the total thermal resistance could reduce by 41.6% when used vapour chamber module
compared with the copper plate. The thermal stress decreased by 20%, and the minimum failure
cycle lifetime could extend by 9%. Velardo et al. [254] based on the experimental and numerical
studies, pointed that the effective thermal conductivity of the vapour changed from 1900 to 2400
W/m•K when the heat source size change from 20 × 20 mm to 35 × 35 mm, respectively. It means
that the heat source size can influence the thermal performance of the vapour chamber owing to
the discrepancy of the phase change and transfer process. Huang et al. [255] revealed that the
synergy of ensuring the structural support effect and reducing vapour pressure drop could be
achieved when the spacing and diameter of the support columns decrease.
They also pointed that for the UTVC, the spaced structure was better compared with the layered
structure. Meanwhile, the effect of surface wettability on the vapour chamber evaporator and
condenser was also be studied. Yang et al. [256] combined wettability patterned surface with the
nanomesh wick structure of the evaporator for the UTVC, and the result in their study showed
that this kind of hybrid structure improved the effective thermal conductivity by 210.7% and
provided better temperature distribution. Koukoravas et al. [257] designed a kind of hybrid
wettability surface to replace the metal wick of the condenser for enhancing condensation
performance. The results showed that the smallest thermal resistance could be obtained when 65%
of the condenser surface was superhydrophilic. In addition, the method of vapour compression
refrigeration cooling has also been a good choice for thermal management owing to its good
thermodynamic efficiencies. The miniaturization of the vapour compression refrigeration and
explore the optimizing parameters to meet the needs of electronic devices has attracted the
attention of researchers nowadays.
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.
Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of the TE module based on (a) Seebeck effect; (b) Peltier
effect
proposed design guidelines for mesoscale cooling of the vapour compression refrigeration, and
their assembly can achieve a 65% increase in cooling capacity. Poachaiyapoom et al. [259]
pointed out that both the heating surface temperature and coefficient of performance would
decrease with the increase of compressor speed. For more information about the compact vapour
compression refrigeration systems could refer to the review paper by Barbosa Jr et al. [260]. It is
difficult to fully simulate the working process of the vapour chamber, owing to its internal
complex physical processes like heat transfer with phase change and multiphase mass flow.
However, many studies still focus on proposing the simplified heat and mass transfer model of
vapour chamber due to the great convenience of numerical simulation. Liu et al. [262] proposed a
reduced-order model to describe the influence of heat flux and liquid charge on the vapour
chamber thermal performance, which guides the mini type vapour chamber design.
Patankar et al. [263–265] developed the transient thermal performance operation model of the
vapour chamber. The model was targeted to investigate transient thermal performance and
optimization of the vapour chamber. It also can be used to select the structural parameters or even
the working liquid of the vapour chamber under certain specific conditions. Naturally, the
working liquid characteristics also have an important impact on the thermal performance of the
vapour chamber. When the working liquid changed from the DI water to the ethanol, the heat
transfer and temperature uniformity could be better [242]. Kim et al. [266] found that using the
nanofluid as the working fluid in the UTVC made the thermal resistance reduce by 56%
compared with the DI-water and obtained better temperature uniformity. As for the filling ratio of
working liquid, many studies have shown that the thermal resistance first decreased and then
increased with the filling rate, so an optimal filling ratio value exists for the vapour chamber
13
5
[244,267,268]. In short, the vapour chamber has been successfully applied in the thermal
management of electronic devices. However, some issues also limit the better application of
vapour chambers. For the vapour chamber combined with the integrated circuit, the packaging
process and the precision of the filling ratio is difficult to control, which is essential for the
reliability and working performance of the vapour chamber. Besides, the start-up issue during the
use of the vapour chamber also needs to be handled carefully [247]. Simultaneously, like the heat
pipe, the 3.4.
Thermoelectric cooling The thermoelectric (TE) materials could use temperature difference (heat
transfer) to realize the conversion of thermal energy and electrical energy was found by Thomas
Johann Seebeck in 1921 [269], which is usually called the Seebeck effect, as shown in Fig. 23(a).
After that, a TE module can transfer heat based on the Peltier effects discovered by Jean Charles
Athanase Peltier in 1834 [270]. The Peltier effect means a temperature difference is produced
through the electrical current flowing between two electrical connection points, as shown in Fig.
23(b). Then, the flat plate at one side of the thermoelectric device will absorb heat (cold side), and
the other side will generate heat (hot side). The TE module cooling has the advantages of no
pollutant emission, noisefree, favourable reliability, heat transfer performance not affected by
gravity. Therefore, the TE module also is widely used in the thermal management of electronic
devices [271].
Many methods have been carried out for improving the heat transfer or cooling capability of the
TE module. Firstly, the TE module material significantly affects thermal performance. A study
pointed that only relying on the existing known TE materials cannot compete with passive
cooling. Hence, the new material needs to be discovered [273]. Mao et al. [274] pointed that it is
essential to find the material with higher ZT, which means the thermoelectric materials figure of
merit and the equation is shown in Eq. (2), where 𝜌 is the electrical resistivity, S is the Seebeck
coefficient, T is the temperature, and k is the thermal conductivity. They also concluded that the
materials of n-type Mg3Bi2−xSbx, n-type Ag2Se and p-type CsBi4Te6 promise research
directions to improve the thermal performance of the TE module [274]. 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑆2𝑇 𝜌𝑘 (2) As
mentioned above, the hotspot issue is crucial in the thermal management of electronic devices.
sabre et al. [275] based on the “sustainable self-cooling framework”, which mean installed the
thermoelectric generators (TEGs) on the cold area of the integrated circuit and the thermoelectric
cooler (TECs) would be fabricated on the hotspot region to achieve the effective cooling. The
results showed that the electronic power collected by TEGs is enough for TECs and can ensure
the maximum temperature of the surface hotspot would not exceed the threshold. Similarly, Lin et
al. [276] proposed a novel designed self-driven TEGTEC system, which could improve the
cooling capability and maximum drop of temperature by 75% and 76.8%, respectively. In
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addition, other kinds of ways to apply the TE module on electronic thermal management are also
constantly being proposed. Lee et al. [277] display a dynamic thermal management program
based on TECs, controlled adaptively according to online information. After applying this system
to the mobile device, the results showed that the processor speed loss would reduce from 19.2% to
1.8%. Mathew et al. [278] realize the integration of thermoelectric cooling on the dynamic
random access memories (DRAMs), which can control the temperature below 85 °C.
Li et al. [279] compared the high-power LEDs working with and without the TE cooling module,
as shown in Fig. 24(a–b), and the results have shown that the TE cooling module could make the
junction temperature of the LEDs reduce by 17 °C. Cai et al. [280] also pointed that it is
necessary to formulate the cooperative operation strategy of thermoelectric active cooling (TAC)
and thermoelectric self-cooling (TSC) to realize maximum energy efficiency and minimize
entropy production. Zhang et al. [281,282] proposed a solution for optimizing and evaluating the
TE cooling system. It is a concise and simple method to explore the relationship between the
junction temperature or cooling power with the electrical current and realize thermal
enhancement. Barrubeeah et al. [283] proposed an analytical model, which could guide
optimization to improve the cooling capacity by 70%. Moreover, to achieve effective thermal
management for flexible electronic devices is a big challenge ; and the poor flexibility is the main
bottleneck for the TE cooling method applying to wearable devices. Recently, Hou et al. [284]
studied on Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3/epoxy thick films, and proposed a flexible device of TE cooling, as
shown in Fig. 24(c). They pointed out that this TE module could improve the stable temperature
difference by 24% under the same applied current compared with other groups, which shows a
way to improve the cooling performance of the flexible TE module. Kattan et al. [285] based on a
thin-film TE module, proposed a kind of on-demand cooling solution for the mobile chip.
They pointed that this solution could reduce the average temperature by 10 °C, and the energy
collected by the TE module can supplement 89% of the cooling cost. Simultaneously, the TE
module could combine with other kinds of heat sink like pin-fin, heat pipe, vapour chamber, and
microchannel to improve thermal management performance. Siddique et al. [286] proposed to
combine the TE module with the liquid cooling system. The results showed that this kind of
system could reduce the temperature of the hot area by 4 °C and had a lower cost to improve
economic efficiency. Belarbi et al. [287] found that the cooling performance for CPU could
improve by 15% after the air-jet impingement cooling combined with thermoelectric cooling. Sun
et al. [288] proposed a coupled TE module with the gravity-assisted heat pipe for electronic
equipment cooling. The experimental results showed that compared with typical air-cooling,
combined with heat pipe could reduce the electricity consumption and enhance the cooling
capability by 39.3% and 64.8%, respectively. Lin et al. [289] designed the TE module combined
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with a microchannel heat sink filled with TiO2 nanofluid, which could cool the LED substrate
below 53.1 °C under the 65 °C ambient temperature and show feasibility in a high-temperature
environment. Huang and Li et al. [290–292] proposed a novel kind of concentric cylindrical TEG
system different from the typical square TEG system and combined it with the heat pipe. The
experimental and numerical results show that this kind of combination could improve the heat
transfer in the radial direction and working performance of TEG, which can enhance the power
output of the TEG owing to the generation of electric power strongly relays on the heat transfer
improvement. In all, TE cooling as one of the effective cooling methods is regarded as a
promising thermal management technology for electronic devices. At present, improving the
performance of TE materials, such as finding the new kind of material inexpensive and with
higher ZT, is still the main challenge. Besides, improving the efficiency of the TE cooling system
also relies on the optimal design of the cooperative application of TE modules, which is worth
research based on the different kinds of electronic devices. 3.5. PCM-based heat sink Phase
change material (PCM) is a series of substances that can absorb or release heat through a phase
change process (usually a solid-liquid phase change process) within a specific temperature range.
As early as 1901, John A Kyle applied for a patent that proposed using palmitic acid and stearic
acid to achieve heat preservation for protecting tin sheets during manufacturing [293].
Nowadays, the PCM has been widely used in many fields [22,294], and it also has advantages in
electronic thermal management. For example, for the electronic device with periodic changes in
heating power, PCM can absorb the heat when the power consumption is at peaks and release the
heat when the power consumption is at troughs, thereby ensuring the smooth operation of the
electronic equipment. Usually, the PCM would not be directly used for the integrated circuit or
packaging but combine with other kinds of heat sink like pin-fin, making the best use of PCM
characteristics and realising better thermal management performance. As a medium for heat
absorption, storage and release, the characteristic of the PCM have a significant effect on the
cooling capability. Therefore, lots of studies focus on the improvement of the PCM thermal
performance. Yang et al. [295] proposed a new kind of PCM, the low melting point metal
(LMPM), which provide high thermal conductivity and latent heat characteristics. Krishna et al.
[296] added Al2O3 nanoparticles to the Tricosane. The results showed that this kind of nano-
enhanced PCM could improve the thermal conductivity by 32%. Through the melting
impregnation method, Feng et al. [305] fabricated a novel polyethylene glycol (PEG)/mesoporous
carbon FDU-15 composites PCM, which improved the thermal conductivity by 60% when
compared with PEG. Farzanehnia et al. [297] thoroughly added multiwall carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) to the Paraffin wax obtained nano-PCM, which could decrease cooling time by 6%
compared with PCM without MWCNTs and reduce the peak temperature of the integrated circuit.
Arshad et al. [298–303] also proposed adding a series of nanoparticles and composite materials
13
8
into the PCM to enhance thermal conductivity, melting time, heat storage capability, and heat
transfer rate density. Materials commonly used to improve the thermal performance of PCM are
shown in Fig. 25. As mentioned above, PCM is usually combined with various kinds of heat sinks
to maximize its advantages, and the pin-fin heat sink is the most versatile amongst them.
The commonly seen pin-fin and its derivative structures combined with PCM are shown in Fig.
26(a–h). Ghanbarpour et al. [305] thorough numerical simulation that found the number and
height of pin-fins had a more noticeable effect on the cooling capability than thickness. Desai et
al. [306] designed six kinds of pin-fin structures for the PCM-based heat sinks, including
rectangular, triangular, circular, and their pyramid-derived structures. The numerical results
showed that the increase of pin-fin number (from 9 to 100) reduced the substrate temperature, and
the pyramid structure didn’t provide better heat transfer t. They also pointed that the triangular
geometry had the best cooling capability under the same mass distribution. Bondareva et al. [307]
revealed that the increase of pin-fin width would induce circulation flows between pin-fins, and
the heat transfer rate would decrease. They also pointed that the total melting time of PCM
decreased with the elongation of the pin-fin. However, the study pointed out that blindly raising
the length of the pin-fin might reduce the heat energy storage capability of PCM-based heat sink,
so the parameters of the pinfin need to be studied and configured carefully [308]. Kalbasi et al.
[309] also revealed that the pin-fin structure could bring both positive and negative effects on the
PCM-based heat sink at the same time.
The positive effect is improving the thermal conductivity of the heat sink, but the negative effect
is the phase change enthalpy would also be sacrificed. Therefore, the safe operation time of PCM-
based heat sink is dependant on the balance of positive and negative effects, which is consistent
with the opinion proposed by Mosavi et al. [310]. In addition to the typical pin-fin structure, other
kinds of enhanced heat transfer structures similar to pin-fin have also been proposed and
optimized for PCM thermal management. Righetti et al. [311] proposed a 3D periodic pyramidal
cell constructed by aluminium ligaments to combine with PCM. The experimental results showed
that the ligaments with a greater number and less thickness (more pyramidal cells) provided lower
junction temperature and better temperature uniformity. Based on the topological optimization
Xie et al. [312] proposed a kind of tree shape structure, which has advantages in generating more
convection cells, inducing more vigorous natural convection during PCM melting and improving
the heat transfer performance. Metal foam has been proven to enhance heat transfer and has been
widely combined with PCM to improve cooling capability.
pointed out that the PCM combined with metal foam provided a preferable cooling capability to
pure PCM. Similarly, Yang et al. [317] combined the PCM with the commonly used Cu foam, as
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shown in Fig. 27(a–c). They indicated that the PCM-based heat sink decreased the junction
temperature by 10–20 °C compared to the Copper entity heat sink. Recently, Qureshi et al.
[318,319] proposed four kinds of metallic foam units and numerical simulates its periodic
structure as shown in Fig. 27(d–j). The results indicated that compared with the traditional
metallic foam unit Kelvin unit, under the same porosity level and isothermal condition, the
Gyroid, IWP, and Primitive unit could reduce the melting time by 31%, 40.3%, and 35.3%,
respectively. So, these three kinds of units could improve the average heat transfer coefficient and
cooling performance, and the IWP unit showed optimal temperature uniformity. In addition, the
PCM also could combine with other cooling methods such as the heat pipe, vapour chamber and
TE module, which could get a favourable heat dissipation effect [305].
Krishna et al. [296] found that the heat pipe evaporator temperature could decrease by 25.75%
after being combined with PCM and save 53% of fan power. Behi et al. [320] also noticed that the
PCM could contribute 86.7% to the required cooling performance for the PCM-heat pipe thermal
management system in their study. Simultaneously, the structure optimization of PCM-heat pipe
heat sinks also be developed. Qu et al. [321] combined the paraffin wax PCM with the multi-
layers 2D and 3D oscillating heat pipes (OHPs). The experimental results showed that the total
time needed for melting the PCM of the multi-layers 3D-OHPs was longer than the 2D-OHPs, so
the multi-layers 3D-OHPs was considered to have the better cooling capability.
Both multi-layers 2D and 3D-OHPs showed better performance for the solidification process
compared with PCM used only. Besides, the microchannel heat sink can also associate with the
PCM, which effectively improves cooling capability. Ho et al. [322] combined nanoencapsulated
phase change material (NEPCM) with water as a kind of suspension applied into the
microchannel. Their experimental results showed that this kind of PCM-microchannel heat sink
could enhance the heat transfer performance by 70%. Meanwhile, they also found its performance
index decreased under the high Re due to increased viscosity and the reduction of sensible heat.
Yan et al. [323] designed to put the PCM outside the microchannel heat sink and showed that the
PCM layer on the top of the microchannel heat sink did not affect the thermal resistance. Finally,
although PCM has been widely used in the thermal management of electronic devices, it still
faces some issues that need to be studied in-depth. The use of nanoparticles could improve the
thermal management performance, but the effect of concentration on heat transfer characteristics
like latent heat is still not fully clear. More accurate numerical models and analytical methods are
also necessary for detailed evaluating PCM working process and performance under different
conditions.
14
0
CHAPTER-4
Conclusion and Outlook
In this paper, the state-of-the-art and the latest progress of commonly used
methodologies and technologies applied for thermal management of
electronic devices have been critically reviewed. This covers the major
methods of direct cooling and indirect cooling to provide a comprehensive
overview of the available thermal management technologies and possibly
inspiring new methods. Their heat transfer performance, optimization, and
application are particularly highlighted. It can be concluded that with the
increase of heat flux of electronic devices, compared with air cooling, liquid
cooling is more adaptable to the requirements of efficient thermal
management. Direct contact cooling like spray, jet impingement, and
immersion cooling has a low thermal resistance owing to the cooling fluid
can interact directly with the heating surface of the electronic devices.
The droplet electrowetting can enhance the cooling ability of hot spots
because its capable of controlling the directional movement of the liquid
droplet to the target area. As for the indirect cooling methods, microchannel
cooling demonstrates efficient heat dissipation ability and provide better
temperature uniformity by two-phase heat transfer. Its compact and
lightweight structure also makes it possible to use various electronic devices
and even other fields. The heat pipe and vapour chamber as kinds of heat
spreaders have an excellent ability to transport heat to the external heat sink,
which provides more ideas for the architecture of the thermal management
systems of the electronic device. Moreover, TE cooling has the advantages of
noise-free and no pollutant emission; thus, making it a highly competitive
thermal management solution in several specific scenarios. Finally, due to the
unique properties of heat-absorbing, storing and releasing, PCM can be
applied together with other types of heat sinks and heat spreaders. Based on
the conducted study, to inspire the future development of advanced thermal
management technologies, the following could be considered:
1) the improvement of structure designs will still play an essential role in the
thermal management of electronic devices. By improving the core structure of
thermal management system, such as the nozzle in spray cooling, the system
cooling capability can be improved effectively. Also, electronic devices are
developing towards miniaturization, portability and flexibility nowadays,
bringing more challenges to thermal management solutions. Therefore, it is
necessary to continue studying and designing novel thermal management
structures to adapt to the development of electronic devices.
44
1
2) the thermal conductivity of materials used for heat sink, heat spreaders,
and TIM is critical to thermal management. It is necessary to find suitable
alternative materials or processing methods to improve thermal conductivity.
More breakthroughs are neccesary to find the materials with higher ZT for TE
cooling. In addition, the effects of thermal stress and corrosion on device
materials also need to be carefully considered.
3) whether it is direct cooling or indirect cooling, the surface properties, such

as wettability and roughness, significantly affect the flow and heat transfer of
the cooling fluid. Therefore, for different cooling methods, clarifying the
effect of different surface properties on their cooling capability is of great
significance to the design of thermal management systems.
4) the nano-fluid with higher thermal conductivity has been used in electronic
cooling. However, it still faces the difficulties, such as easy formation of deposits
and blockages in channels and nozzles after long-term operation; and sometimes it
may lead to a damage ofthermal management systems and even the electronic
devices. 5) the phase change process enhance heat transfer process effectively for
liquid cooling, and it is usually used for the thermal management of the high-power
electronic device. It may also cause instabilities like the pressure drop oscillations in
the microchannel flow boiling, which still need to find some effective methods to
control or eliminate. The complete numerical simulation of two-phase flow process
is still a complex and challenging task, and more accurate and efficient numerical
methods still need to be further explored. 6) the thermal management system usually
consists of many components, and the optimization and new ways to reduce the
overall thermal resistance and energy consumption are still required.
To design a thermal management system also needs to consider the issue of eco-
friendly and recyclable.
44
2
CONCLUSION
This paper concludes that the system design needs to consider both air
conditioner and PV system in order to achieve the space cooling. As for the
air conditioning, cooling capacity must be determined first as it will give a
rough idea on how to design and construct the system with enough electrical
energy supplied to it. With considering of these several factors, it will help to
improve the stability and efficiency of the systemfor greener solutions to the
world’s energy needs. The most common globally, preferred type of
thermally driven technology is absorption cooling. The system, which has
simpler capacity control, mechanism, easier implementation, high reliability,
silent operation, long life and low maintenance cost was a genuine candidate
for efficient and economic use of solar energy for cooling applications.
ELECTRONIC DEVICE COOLING SYSTEMS systems can provide
significant advantages, both environmentally and economically. Using solar
power to cool homes and buildings can help reduce energy costs, increase
energy independence, and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally,
ELECTRONIC DEVICE COOLING SYSTEMS systems require less
maintenance than traditional air conditioning systems, and government
incentives are often available to help reduce the initial cost of installation. As
the demand for energy-efficient and environmentally friendly solutions
increases, ELECTRONIC DEVICE COOLING SYSTEMS is likely to
become even more popular in the coming years.
44
3
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ELECTRONIC DEVICE COOLING SYSTEMS

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement

for the award of the

Submitted By: Under the supervision of:

Aditya Mantri Sh. Rajeev Rajora

(19/144) Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

(VIII Semester) UTD, RTU Kota

Department of Mechanical Engineering

RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA

Sh. Rajeev Rajora

I extend this acknowledgement to my batch mates and Department of Mechanical

Figure 1: Typical application areas of integrated circuits...................................................7

Figure 3: Classiﬁcation of commonly used thermal management methods.....................13

Figure 5: Heat Maps............................................................................................................15

Figure 7: Commonly used microstructures in the microchannel heat transfer

Figure 8: Condenser fan.......................................................................................................17

Figure 9: AC blower motor..................................................................................................18

Figure 10: Charge controller................................................................................................18

Figure 11: VCRS cycle........................................................................................................20

Figure 12: VCRS T-S & P-H cycle….................................................................................21

Figure 13: VARS system….................................................................................................22

Figure 14: Vapour adsorption system….............................................................................25

Figure 15: Solar panel….....................................................................................................26

Figure 16: Battery…...........................................................................................................28

Figure 17: Inverter…..........................................................................................................28

Figure 18: PV panel….......................................................................................................33

Figure 19: Solar power circuit............................................................................................34

Figure 20: Refrigeration line diagram…............................................................................35

Figure 21: Curve COP v/s Time........................................................................................37

CHAPTER-2 DIRECT CONTACT WITH COOLING FLUID....................................................11

CHAPTER-3 INDIRECT CONTACT WITH COOLING FLUID................................................13

CHEPTAR 4 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOKS..............................................................................36

LITRATURE REVIEWS ………………………………………………………………………………..

Fig. 1. Typical application areas of integrated circuits.

Fig. 3. Classiﬁcation of commonly used thermal management methods.

2.1. Air cooling

Fig. 5. Heat Maps

Fig. 6. Commonly used microstructures in the microchannel heat transfer

2.2 Jet impingement cooling

3) whether it is direct cooling or indirect cooling, the surface properties, such

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