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Diet and Weight Control and Diabetes Mellitus
Diet and Weight Control and Diabetes Mellitus
BMI BMI
Body Mass Index
Medical standard used to define obesity.
Used to determine whether a person is at health risk from excess weight.
Obtained by dividing weight in kilograms by height in meters squared.
FAT DISTRIBUTION Fat Distribution
Fat in the abdominal cavity is associated with a greater risk for hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart
disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer than fat in the thigh, buttocks, and hip area.
Pear-shaped body has a lower risk for disease than does apple-shaped body.
OVERWEIGHT & Overweight and Obesity
OBESITY Overweight is a serious health hazard.
It increases susceptibility to diabetes mellitus and hypertension.
No one cause for obesity.
Energy imbalance is a significant cause.
Healthy Weight
Not everyone can match the "healthy weight target", which is a BMI of 19 to 25.
A "healthy weight" may be the weight at which one is eating nutritiously, is exercising, has no health
problems, and is free from disease.
Low-kcal Foods
Black coffee Tomatoes
Plain tea Zucchini
Cantaloupe Cauliflower
Strawberries Broccoli
Lettuce Celery
Bean sprouts Cucumbers
Cabbage Spinach
Mushrooms Red/green peppers
Asparagus
EXERCISE Exercise
Excellent adjunct to any weight-loss program
Lowers set point
Dancing, jogging, bicycling, skiing, rowing, power walking
Such exercise helps tone muscles, burns kcal, increases the BMR so food is burned faster, and is fun for
the participant.
Stop and Share:
Your client would like to use behavior modification for weight loss.
What recommendations could you give your client?
o Weigh regularly, but not daily.
o Don't wait too long between meals.
o Join a support group and go to meetings during and after the weight loss.
o Eat whole, fresh foods and avoid processed foods.
o Treat yourself with something besides food.
o Anticipate problems (banquets and holidays) and "undereat" slightly before and after.
o "Save" some kcal for snacks and treats.
o If something goes wrong, don't punish yourself by eating.
o If no weight loss for 1 week, realize it may be from exercising (production of lean muscle) or
water retention.
o If binging occurs, don't punish yourself.
o Go for a walk, movie, or museum. Call a friend.
o Adapt family meals to suit your needs.
o Don't make a production of your diet.
o Avoid the heavy-kcal items.
o Substitute something you like that is low in kcal.
o Take small portions.
o Eat vegetables and bread without butter or margarine.
o ---
Gastric Bypass
Most of the stomach is stapled off, creating a pouch in the upper part.
The pouch is attached directly to the jejunum.
Stomach Banding
Stomach is also stapled but to a slightly lesser degree than in gastric bypass.
Food moves to the duodenum, but the outlet from the upper stomach is somewhat
restricted.
UNDERWEIGHT Underweight
Treated by a high-kcal diet or high-kcal diet combined with psychological counseling.
It can be as difficult for an underweight person to gain weight as it is for an overweight person to lose it.
Diet should be based on the Food Guide Pyramid.
3,500 kcal added to normal weekly intake to gain 1 pound per week.
An extra 500 kcal taken in each day.
Easily digested food is recommended.
Avoid fried and bulky foods
Symptoms
Polyuria: excessive urination
Polydipsia: excessive thirst
Polyphagia: excessive appetite
Loss of weight, weakness, fatigue
Complications
Ketones: substances to which fatty acids are broken down in the liver.
Ketoacidosis: condition in which acids from ketones accumulate. May lead to diabetic coma which can
result in death if the client is not treated quickly with fluids and insulin.
Atherosclerosis is a major cause of death in diabetics.
Retinopathy is the leading cause of blindness in the United States.
Kidney disease resulting in dialysis.
Nerve damage (neuropathy) is not uncommon.
Infections, especially of the urinary tract are frequent problems.
Etiology
The cause of diabetes is unconfirmed although it is believed that it may be hereditary.
Environmental factors may also play a role in the development of diabetes.
Viruses or obesity may precipitate the disease.
CLASSIFICATION OF Classification
DIABETES MELLITUS Type 1: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Type 2: non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Gestational diabetes: diabetes in pregnancy
Type 1
Formerly juvenile-onset diabetes mellitus.
Occurs between the ages of 1 and 40. 10 to 20% of all diabetes cases.
Secrete little, if any, insulin. Clients become insulin dependent requiring both insulin injections and a
carefully controlled diet.
Type 2
Previously called adult-onset diabetes.
Usually occurs after age 40, new evidence suggests screening at age 25.
Obesity epidemic has increased prevalence among young adults.
Treatment: diet, exercise, oral glucose- lowering medication (may or may not need insulin).
Goals of medical nutrition therapy include maintaining healthy glucose, blood pressure and lipid levels;
weight reduction.
Gestational Diabetes
Occurs between sixteenth and twenty- eighth week of pregnancy.
Insulin required if not responsive to diet and exercise.
Usually, gestational diabetes disappears after the infant is born.
Diabetes can develop 5 to 10 years after the pregnancy.
Treatment
o Goals:
Control blood glucose levels
Provide optimal nourishment for the client
Prevent symptoms and thus delay complications
Normal blood glucose levels are 70 to 110 mg/dl.
Treatment Regimes
Diet alone
Diet combined with glucose-lowering medication
Diet combined with insulin
Exercise combined to any of the above
Regularly monitor blood glucose levels in addition to any of the above
Carbohydrate Counting
Newest method for teaching a diabetic client how to control blood sugar with food.
The starch/breads, milk, and fruits have all been put under the heading of "carbohydrates."
Exchange lists are utilized in carbohydrate counting as well as traditional meal planning.
Fiber
High fiber intake appears to reduce the amount of insulin needed because it lowers blood glucose.
It also appears to lower the blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels.
High fiber may mean 25-35g of dietary fiber a day.
Increase water when increasing fiber
Alternative Sweeteners
Saccharin has been shown to produce bladder cancer in rats when used in large quantities.
Approved by FDA:
o Aspartame—made from amino acids; does not require insulin for metabolism.
o Sucralose—sweetener made from sugar molecule.
Dietetic Foods
Use of diabetic foods is generally a waste of money and can be misleading to the client.
Often the containers of foods will contain the same ingredients as containers of foods prepared for the
general public.
These foods will contain carbohydrates, fats, and proteins that must be calculated in the total day's diet.
Read the label!
Alcohol
Not recommended for diabetic clients.
Limited use sometimes allowed if approved by physician.
Some diabetic clients who use hypoglycemic agents cannot tolerate alcohol.
Include in diet plan if used.
Exercise
Type 2: exercise helps improve weight control, glucose levels, and the cardiovascular system.
Type l: exercise can complicate glucose control. If done, should be on regular basis, and considered
carefully as meals are planned to avoid hypoglycemia.
Insulin Reactions
Insulin reaction, or hypoglycemic episode, can result from too much insulin.
Symptoms include headache, blurred vision, tremors, confusion, poor coordination, eventual
unconsciousness.
Brain damage, coma, or death may result.
Atherosclerosis
Plaque may cause a reduced blood flow beyond the obstruction; ischemia occurs.
Ischemia may cause pain.
Angina pectoris: Chest pain; may radiate down left arm.
Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG): procedure to bypass circulation around a clogged artery.
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA): blood flow to brain is blocked or blood vessel bursts (stroke).
Risk Factors
Major:
o Hyperlipidemia (elevated total cholesterol; high LDL, low HDL)
o Hypertension
o Smoking
Contributory factors:
o Obesity
o Diabetes mellitus
o Male sex
o Heredity
o Personality type (ability to handle stress)
o Age (risk increase with age)
o Sedentary lifestyle
Cholesterol-lowering Agents
If appropriate blood lipid levels cannot be attained within 3 to 6 months by use of fat- restricted diet
alone, the physician can prescribe a cholesterol-lowering drug.
Example: simvastatin (Zocor)
Client teaching: Zocor interacts with grapefruit and its juice; total avoidance is necessary.
o
TREATMENT Dietary Treatment
Weight loss
Sodium-restricted diet
Diuretics
When diuretics are prescribed together with a sodium-restricted diet, the client may lose potassium via
the urine and, thus, be advised to increase the amount of potassium-rich foods in the diet.
Sodium-Restricted Diets
Regular diet in which the amount of sodium is limited.
Used to alleviate edema and hypertension.
Food and Nutrition Board recommends daily intake of sodium be limited to no more than 2,400 mg (2.4
g).
Impossible to have a diet totally free of sodium.
Meats, fish, poultry, dairy products, and eggs all contain substantial amounts of sodium naturally.
Cereals, vegetables, fruits, and fats contain small amounts of sodium naturally.
Water contains vary amounts of sodium
Many products contain sodium; check labels.
Some over-the-counter medicines contain sodium.
Physician's permission should be obtained before using any medication
or salt substitute.
Adjustment to Sodium Restriction
o Most people are accustomed to salt in their food and transition to sodium-restricted diet may
be difficult.
o It will help the client if the reduction in sodium can be gradual.
o Most people are accustomed to salt in their food and transition to sodium-restricted diet may
be difficult.
o It will help the client if the reduction in sodium can be gradual.
o Remind the client of the numerous herbs, spices, and flavorings allowed
Dialysis
Done be either hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis.
Hemodialysis requires permanent access to the bloodstream through a fistula.
Hemodialysis is done 3 times a week for 3- 5 hours at a time.
Peritoneal dialysis makes use of the peritoneal cavity.
Less efficient than hemodialysis.
Treatments usually last about 10 to 12 hours a day, 3 times a week.
Complications include peritonitis, hypotension, weight gain.
Diet During Dialysis
o Dialysis clients may need additional protein.
o Amount must be carefully controlled.
o A client on hemodialysis requires I .0 to 1.2g of protein per kilogram of body weight to make up
for losses during dialysis.
o A client on peritoneal dialysis requires 1.2 to 1.5g protein per kilogram body weight.
o 75% of this protein should be high biological value (HBV) protein, found in eggs, meat, fish,
poultry, milk, and cheese.
o Potassium is usually restricted.
o A typical renal diet could be written as "80-3-3" which means 80g protein, 3g sodium, and 3g
potassium daily.
o Healthy people ingest from 2,000 to 6,000 mg of potassium per day.
o Daily intake allowed clients in renal failure is 3,000 to 4,000 mg.
o End stage renal disease clients intake allowed is 1,500 to 2,500 mg per day.
Esophagitis
Irritating effect of acidic gastric reflux on mucosa of esophagus.
Heartburn, regurgitation, and dysphagia.
Chronic, or reflux esophagitis is caused by recurrent gastroesophageal reflux (GER)
Causes include hiatal hernia, reduced lower esophogeal sphincter pressure, abdominal pressure, or
recurrent vomiting.
Hiatal Hernia
A part of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity.
The hernia prevents the food from moving normally along the digestive tract.
Food moves back into the esophagus, creating a burning sensation (heartburn), and sometimes food will
be regurgitated into the mouth.
Nutrition Therapy for Hiatal Hernia
o Small, frequent meals; well-balanced diet.
o Avoid irritants such as carbonated beverages, citrus fruits and juices, tomato products, spicy
foods, coffee, pepper, and some herbs.
o Avoid foods that relax sphincter such as alcohol, garlic, onion, oil or peppermint and spearmint,
chocolate, cream sauces, gravies, margarine, butter, and oil.
o If client is obese, weight loss may be recommended.
o Avoid lying down 2 to 3 hours after eating.
o When lying down, sleep with head and upper torso elevated.
o Surgery may become necessary.
Peptic Ulcers
Erosion of the mucous membrane.
May occur in the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the duodenum (duodenal ulcer); cause unclear.
Factors that predispose: genetics, high secretion of hydrochloric acid, stress, excessive use of aspirin or
ibuprofen, smoking, Helicobacter Pylori bacteria.
Symptoms include gastric pain (burning relieved with food or antacids), hemorrhage (usually requires
surgery).
Treatment: drugs such as antibiotics and cimetidine to kill bacteria and inhibit acid secretion respectively.
Antacids neutralizc excess acid.
Rest and counseling.
Dietary recommendation:
o Sufficient low-fat protein should be provided.
o No less than 0.8g of protein per kilogram of body weight recommended.
o Avoid caffeine containing beverages, alcohol, aspirin, smoking.
o Well balance of three meals a day
Diverticulosis/Diverticulitis
Diverticulosis is an intestinal disorder characterized by little pockets in sides of the large intestine where
food gets trapped.
Diverticulitis can result from bacteria breeding in these pockets.
Cause is diet lacking sufficient fiber.
Diet treatment includes clear liquid diet, then low-residue progressing to high fiber over several weeks.
Low-residue Diet
5 to 10g of fiber a day is intended to reduce the normal work of the intestines by restricting the amount of
dietary fiber and reducing food residue.
Low-fiber or residue-restricted diets may be used in cases of severe diarrhea, diverticulitis, ulcerative
colitis, and intestinal blockage and in preparation for and immediately after intestinal surgery.
Crohn's Disease
Chronic progressive disorder that can affect both the small and large intestines.
Symptoms of Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Bloody Diarrhea Anorexia
Cramps Malnutrition
Fatigue Weight Loss
Nausea
CIRRHOSIS Cirrhosis
Liver disease may be acute or chronic.
Cirrhosis is a general term referring to all types of liver disease characterized by cell loss.
Alcohol abuse is the most common cause of cirrhosis.
Other causes include congenital defects, infections, or other toxic chemicals.
Liver does regenerate, however, the replacement during cirrhosis does not match the loss.
Complications include hypertension, anemia, hemorrhage in the esophagus.
Dietary treatment of cirrhosis provides at
o I' least 25 to 35 kcal or more, and 0.8 to 1.0g of protein per kilogram of weight each day.
o Supplements of vitamins and minerals are usually needed.
o In advanced cirrhosis, 50 to 60% of the kcal should be from carbohydrates.
Sometimes cirrhosis causes ascites.
Sodium and fluids may be restricted.
If there is bleeding in the esophagus, fiber can be restricted to prevent irritation of the tissue.
Smaller feedings will be better accepted than larger ones.
HEPATITIS Hepatitis
Inflammation of the liver.
Caused by viruses or toxic agents such as drugs and alcohol.
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) contracted through contaminated drinking water, food, and sewage via a fecal-oral
route.
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Symptoms may include nausea, headache, fever, fatigue, tender and enlarged liver, anorexia, and jaundice
(yellow cast of the
skin and eyes). Weight loss can be pronounced.
Treatment involves bed rest, plenty of fluids, diet therapy.
PANCREATITIS Pancreatitis
----
Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea and steatorrhea (abnormal amounts of fat in the feces).
Malabsorption (particularly of fat-soluble vitamins) and weight loss.
If islets of Langerhans are destroyed, diabetes mellitus may result.
During acute pancreatitis, the client is nourished strictly parenterally.
Later, when the client can tolerate oral feedings, a liquid diet consisting mainly of carbohydrates is given
because, of these 3 nutrients, carbohydrates have the least stimulatory effect on pancreatic secretions.
As recovery progresses, small, frequent feedings of carbohydrates and protein with little fat or fiber are
given.
Vitamin supplements may be given.
Alcohol is forbidden in all cases
EFFECTS The Effects of Cancer (not only during the disease but also during treatment)
Unexplained weight loss, weakness, anorexia.
Loss of muscle tissue and hypoalbuminemia.
Sense of taste and of smell becomes abnormal.
Satiated earlier than normal. (busog kahit konti lang yung kinain)
Abnormal insulin production with hyperglycemia.
Hypercalcemia, renal stones, impaired kidney function
….severe
CONCLUSION Conclusion
Improving the nutritional state is difficult because of the illness and anorexia.
Parenteral or enteral nutrition may be necessary.
Health care professional can help the client improve nutrition.
DIET AND SURGERY, ENTERAL, PARENTAL NUTRITION, BURNS, INFECTIONS AND AIDS
HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis
Homeostasis is a state of physical balance; a stable condition.
Normally, the body operates in a state of homeostasis.
When the body experiences the trauma of surgery, severe burns, or infections, this balance is upset.
o USESTRESS- healthy stress/beneficial stress
o DISTRESS- A distraction, negative type of stress hat causes trauma
During its response to physical stress, the body signals the endocrine system, which activates a self-
protective, hypermetabolic response.
Surgery, burns, and infections can create stress.
Nutrition plays an important role in the lives of clients undergoing this stress.
Stressors…
FEEDING THE CLIENT In the home, the family menu should serve as the basis of the client's meal whenever possible.
Omit or add certain foods as necessary.
Vary the method of preparation if needed
SERVING THE MEAL When serving food at the bedside, tray should be lined with a pretty cloth or paper liner.
Attractive dishes should be used.
Food should be arranged attractively
Utensils arranged conveniently
Serve water, as well as another beverage. Serve food at proper temperature.
Give client the opportunity to use the bedpan and to wash before the meal is served.
Client should be in a comfortable position.
Any unpleasant sights should be removed.
Pleasant conversation during preparation can improve the client's mood.
Tray should be placed so that it is easy for the client to feed self.
If client needs help, prepare items by opening containers and anticipating needs.
Client should be given sufficient time to eat.
If meal is interrupted, warm food should be re-heated.
Help client brush teeth after meal.
Document intake for facility policy