Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research - Vol.2, Iss.2 April 2020

Editor-in-Chief
Professor. Dr. Sayed Hemeda Ph.D in Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Pro-
fessor of Geotechnical Engineering and Architectural Preservation of historic buildings, Conservation Department, faculty of
archaeology, Cairo university., Egypt
Editorial Board Members

Reza Jahanshahi, Iran Bo Li, China
Salvatore Grasso, Italy Irfan Baig, Norway
Fangming Zeng, China Shaoshuai Shi, China
Shenghua Cui, China Sumit Kumar Ghosh, India
Golnaz Jozanikohan, Iran Bojan Matoš, Croatia
Mehmet Irfan Yesilnacar, Turkey Roberto Wagner Lourenço, Brazil
Ziliang Liu, China Massimo Ranaldi, Italy
Abrar Niaz, Pakistan Zaman Malekzade, Iran
Sunday Ojochogwu Idakwo, Nigeria Xiaohan Yang, Australia
Angelo Doglioni, Italy Gehan Mohammed, Egypt
Jianwen Pan, China Márton Veress, Hungary
Changjiang Liu, China Vincenzo Amato, Italy
Wen-Chieh Cheng, China Fangqiang Wei, China
Wei Duan, China Sirwan Hama Ahmed, Iraq
Jule Xiao, China Siva Prasad BNV, India
Intissar Farid, Tunisia Ahm Radwan, Egypt
Jalal Amini, Iran Yasir Bashir, Malaysia
Jun Xiao, China Nadeem Ahmad Bhat, India
Jin Gao, China Boonnarong Arsairai, Thailand
Chong Peng, China Neil Edwin Matthew Dickson, Norfolk Island
Bingqi Zhu, China Mojtaba Rahimi, Iran
Zheng Han,China Mohamad Syazwan Mohd Sanusi, Malaysia
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Naumov, Russian Federation Sohrab Mirassi, Iran
Dongdong Wang, China Gökhan Büyükkahraman, Turkey
Jian-Hong Wu, Taiwan Kirubakaran Muniraj, India
Abdessamad Didi, Morocco Nazife Erarslan, Turkey
Abdel Majid Messadi, Tunisia Prasanna Lakshitha Dharmapriyar, Sri Lanka
Himadri Bhusan Sahoo, India Harinandan Kumar, India
Ashraf M.T. Elewa, Egypt Amr Abdelnasser Khalil, Egypt
Jiang-Feng Liu, China Zhouhua Wang, China
Vasiliy Anatol’evich Mironov, Russian Federation Frederico Scarelli, Brazil
Maysam Abedi, Iran Bahman Soleimani，Iran
Anderson José Maraschin, Brazil Luqman Kolawole Abidoye，Nigeria
Alcides Nobrega Sial, Brazil Tongjun Chen,China
Renmao Yuan, China Vinod Kumar Gupta,France
Ezzedine Saïdi, Tunisia Waleed Sulaiman Shingaly,Iraq
Xiaoxu Jia, China Saeideh Samani,Iran
Mokhles Kamal Azer, Egypt Khalid Elyas Mohamed E.A.,Saudi Arabia
Ntieche Benjamin, Cameroon Xinjie Liu,China
Sandeep Kumar Soni, Ethiopia Mualla Cengiz,Turkey
Jinliang Zhang, China Hamdalla Abdel-Gawad Wanas,Saudi Arabia
Keliu Wu, China Peace Nwaerema,Nigeria
Kamel Bechir Maalaoui, Tunisia Gang Li,China
Fernando Carlos Lopes,Portugal Nchofua Festus Biosengazeh,Cameroon
Shimba Daniel Kwelwa,Tanzania Williams Nirorowan Ofuyah,Nigeria
Jian Wang, China Ashok Sigdel,Nepal
Antonio Zanutta, Italy Richmond Uwanemesor Ideozu,Nigeria
Xiaochen Wei, China Ramesh Man Tuladhar,Nepal
Nabil H. Swedan, United States Swostik Kumar Adhikari,Nepal
Mirmahdi Seyedrahimi-Niaraq, Iran
Volume 2 Issue 2 · April 2020· ISSN 2630-4961 (Online)
Journal of
Geological Research
Editor-in-Chief
Professor. Dr. Sayed Hemeda
Volume 2 | Issue 2 | April 2020 | Page 1-40
Journal of Geological Research
Contents
Article
1 Seismic Edge Detection by Application of Cepstral Decomposition to Data Driven Modeled
Geologic Channel Feature in Niger Delta
Orji, O.M. 　Ugwu, S.A. 　Ofuyah, W.N.
11 Analysis of Heavy Metals Contamination and Quality Parameters of Groundwater in Ihetu-
tu, Ishiagu
A. G. Benibo　R. Sha’Ato R. A. Wuana A. U. Itodo
34 Mineral Chemistry and Nomenclature of Amphiboles of Garnet Bearing Amphibolites
From Thana Bhilwara, Rajasthan, India
H. Thomas 　Haritabh Rana
Review
20 Review of Groundwater Potentials and Groundwater Hydrochemistry of Semi-arid Hade-
jia-Yobe Basin, North-eastern Nigeria
Saadu Umar Wali 　Ibrahim Mustapha Dankani 　Sheikh Danjuma Abubakar 　Murtala
Abubakar Gada 　Abdulqadir Abubakar Usman 　Ibrahim Mohammad Shera 　Kabiru
Jega Umar
Copyright
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Journal of Geological Research | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | April 2020

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jgr-a
ARTICLE
Seismic Edge Detection by Application of Cepstral Decomposition to
Data Driven Modeled Geologic Channel Feature in Niger Delta
Orji, O.M.1*　Ugwu, S.A.2　Ofuyah, W.N.3
1. Department of Petroleum Engineering and Geoscience, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Nigeria
2. Department of Geology, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
3. Department of Earth Sciences, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, Nigeria
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history Seismic edge detection algorithm unmasks blurred discontinuity in an

Received: 23 June 2020 image and its efficiency is dependent on the precession of the processing
scheme adopted. Data-driven modeling is a fast machine learning scheme
Accepted: 8 July 2020 and a formal automatic version of the empirical approach in existence for
Published Online: 30 July 2020 a long time and which can be used in many different contexts. Here, a de-
sired algorithm that can identify masked connection and correlation from
Keywords: a set of observations is built and used. Geologic models of hydrocarbon
Complex Cepstral Transform reservoirs facilitate enhanced visualization, volumetric calculation, well
planning and prediction of migration path for fluid. In order to obtain new
Fourier transform insights and test the mappability of a geologic feature, spectral decompo-
Gamnitude sition techniques i.e. Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), etc and Cepstral
Quefrency decomposition techniques, i.e Complex Cepstral Transform (CCT), etc can
be employed. Cepstral decomposition is a new approach that extends the
Saphe
widely used process of spectral decomposition which is rigorous when an-
alyzing very subtle stratigraphic plays and fractured reservoirs. This paper
presents the results of the application of DFT and CCT to a two dimension-
al, 50Hz low impedance Channel sand model, representing typical geologic
environment around a prospective hydrocarbon zone largely trapped in
various types of channel structures. While the DFT represents the frequen-
cy and phase spectra of a signal, assumes stationarity and highlights the
average properties of its dominant portion, assuming analytical, the CCT
represents the quefrency and saphe cepstra of a signal in quefrency domain.
The transform filters the field data recorded in time domain, and recovers
lost sub-seismic geologic information in quefrency domain by separating
source and transmission path effects. Our algorithm is based on fast Fou-
rier transform (FFT) techniques and the programming code was written
within Matlab software. It was developed from first principles and outside
oil industry’s interpretational platform using standard processing routines.
The results of the algorithm, when implemented on both commercial and
general platforms, were comparable. The cepstral properties of the channel
model indicate that cepstral attributes can be utilized as powerful tool in
exploration problems to enhance visualization of small scale anomalies
and obtain reliable estimates of wavelet and stratigraphic parameters. The
practical relevance of this investigation is illustrated by means of sample
results of spectral and cepstral attribute plots and pseudo-sections of phase
and saphe constructed from the model data. The cepstral attributes reveal
more details in terms of quefrency required for clearer imaging and better
interpretation of subtle edges/discontinuities, sand-shale interbedding, dif-
ferences in lithology. These positively impact on production as they serve
as basis for the interpretation of similar geologic situations in field data.
*Corresponding Author:
Orji, O.M.,
Department
　 of Petroleum Engineering and Geoscience, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Nigeria;
Email: orji_om@pti.edu.ng
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046 1

1. Introduction and stratigraphic parameters. The practical relevance of
S
this investigation is illustrated by means of sample results
eismic edge detection algorithm unambiguously of spectral and cepstral attribute plots and pseudo-sections
unmasks blurred discontinuity in an image and its of phase and saphe constructed from the model data. The
efficiency is dependent on the precession of the cepstral attributes reveal more details in terms of quefren-
processing scheme adopted. Data-driven modeling is a cy required for clearer imaging and better interpretation
fast developing machine learning scheme and a formal of subtle edges/discontinuities, sand-shale interbedding,
usually automatic version of the empirical approach in differences in lithology and generally better delineation
existence for long time and which can be used in many and delimitation of stratigraphic features than the spectral
different contexts, i.e. when manual processing and infor- attributes.
mal observations are used. Here, a desired algorithm that Seismic visibility is enhanced through the change of
can identify masked connection and correlation from a set the seismic data outlook from the standard amplitude mea-
of observations or data is built and used. surement to a new domain in order separate fact from arti-
Geologic models of hydrocarbon reservoirs facilitate fact in seismic processing and interpretation. Seismic data
enhanced visualization, volumetric calculation, well plan- are usually contaminated by noise, even when the data has
ning and prediction of migration path for fluid. In order to been migrated reasonably well and are multiple-free [1]. In
obtain new insights and test the mappability of a geologic frequency and quefrency domains, the technique separates
feature, spectral decomposition techniques i.e. Discrete fact from artifact and better geologic picture emerges.
Fourier Transform (DFT), Short-Time Fourier Transform This is necessary in hydrocarbon reservoir characteriza-
(STFT), etc and Cepstral decomposition techniques, tion since a clear knowledge of a reservoir facilitates en-
i.e. Real Cepstral Transform (RCT), Complex Cepstral hanced recovery [2]. The Cepstrum is the Fourier transform
Transform (CCT), etc. can be employed. Cepstral decom- of the log of the spectrum of the data [3].
position is a new approach that extends the widely used This paper is an attempt to describe aspect of innova-
process of spectral decomposition which is rigorous when tive and unconventional methods and new technology
analyzing very subtle stratigraphic plays and fractured developed for application in areas of uncertain data or
reservoirs. complex geology such as in deep waters, marginal fields,
This paper presents the results of the application of fractured zones, etc. for the purpose of their development.
DFT and CCT to a two dimensional, 50Hz low impedance The presentation outline is as follows: Section one, this
Channel sand model, representing typical geologic envi- section, introduces the concept of edge detection, model
ronment around a prospective hydrocarbon zone. A large types, and interpretation in more resolving domains rather
number of oil and gas fields have been found to be trapped than in time, (natural data acquisition domain), and ge-
in various types of channel structures. While the DFT ology of the study area. In section two, the concepts of
represents the frequency and phase spectra of a signal in Spectral and Cepstral decompositions are addressed, while
frequency domain, assumes stationarity and highlights in section three, the methodology adopted is presented.
the average properties of its dominant portion, assuming Section four contains the results and analysis and finally,
analytical, the CCT represents the quefrency and saphe in section 5, the conclusions of this study are highlighted.
cepstra of a signal in quefrency domain. The transform
Geologic Background
filters the field data recorded in time domain, and recovers
lost sub-seismic geologic information in quefrency do- The source of our data is the ‘Tomboy’ Basin in Niger
main by separating source and transmission path effects. delta region (Figure 1). The region is a prolific hydro-
Our algorithm is based on fast Fourier transform (FFT) carbon province formed during three depositional cycles
techniques and the programming code was written within from middle cretaceous to recent in Nigeria. It is located
Matlab software. It was developed from first principles in Nigeria between latitudes 30N and 60N and longitudes
and outside oil industry’s interpretational platform using 40301 E and 90E and bounded in the west by the Benin
standard processing routines. The results of the algorithm, flank, in the east by the Calabar flank and in the north by
when implemented on both oil industry (e.g. Kingdom the older tectonic elements e.g. Anambra basin, Abakaliki
Suite, Petrel) and general platforms, were comparable. uplift and the Afikpo syncline. The Niger delta basin is
The cepstral properties of the channel model indicate one of the largest subaerial basins in Africa. It has a sub-
that cepstral attributes can be utilized as powerful tool in aerial area of about 75,000 km2, a total area of 300,000
exploration problems to enhance visualization of small km2, and a sediment fill of 500,000 km3 [4]. The region is
scale anomalies and obtain reliable estimates of wavelet a large arcuate delta of the destructive wave dominated
2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046

type and is divided into the continental, transitional and 2. Theory

marine environments. In order of deposition, a sequence
of under compacted marine shale (Akata formation, depth 2.1 Fourier Transform
from about 11121 ft, and main source rock of the Niger
Fourier analysis decomposes a signal into its sinusoidal
delta), is overlain by paralic or sand/shale deposits (Agba-
components based on the assumption that the frequency
da formation, depth from about 7180-11121ft, are present
is not changing with time (stationary). Fourier transform
throughout. This is the major oil and natural gas bearing
allows insights of average properties of a reasonably large
facies in the basin. The paralic interval is overlain by a
portion of trace but it does not ordinarily permit exam-
varying thickness of continental sands (Benin formation,
ination of local variations) [10]. This is because the convo-
depth from 0-about 6000ft, contains no commercial hy-
lution of a source wavelet with a random geologic series
drocarbons, although several minor oil and gas stringers
of wide window produces an amplitude spectrum that re-
are present) [5,6]. Growth faults strongly influenced the
sembles the wavelet. To obtain a wavelet overprint which
sedimentation pattern and thickness distribution of sands
reflects the local acoustic properties and thickness of the
and shales. Oil and gas are trapped by roll-over anticlines
subsurface layers, a narrow window as in STFT can be
and growth faults [7]. The ages of the formations become
adopted. In practice, the standard algorithm used in digital
progressively younger in a down-dip direction and range
computers for the computation of Fourier transform is the
from Paleocene to Recent [8]). Hydrocarbon is trapped in
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT/DFT).
many different trap configurations. The implication of this
is that geological and geophysical analyses must be so- 2.2 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
phisticated, a departure from the conventional, in order to
unmask hidden/by-passed reserves, usually stratigraphic The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is the digital
and laden with huge hydrocarbon accumulation. equivalent of the continuous Fourier transform and is ex-
pressed as
N
w −∞
f (w )
= ∑ f (t )
t = −∞
exp ( −iwt ) (1)
While the inverse discrete Fourier transform is
w −∞
f (t ) ∑ = f ( w) exp ( iwt ) (2)
t = −∞
(a) Tomboy Field, Niger Delta, cited in [9]

where, w is the Fourier dual of the variable “t”. If ‘t’
signifies time, then ‘w’ is the
angular frequency which is related to the linear (tempo-
ral frequency) ‘f’. Also, F(w)
comprises both real (Fr(w) and imaginary Fi(w) compo-
nents. Hence
F ( w) Fr ( w) + iFi ( w)
= (3)
(b) Tomboy Field, Niger Delta: Base map of survey area showing the A ( w)
= [ Fr 2 ( w ) + Fi 2 ( w )]1/ 2 (4)
arbitrary line (in Red) in the field
Figure 1. Tomboy Field, Niger Delta: (a) Bathymetric  F ( w) 

Sea‐floor image of the Niger Delta obtained from a ϕ ( w) = tan −1  i  (5)
dense grid of two-dimensional seismic reflection profiles  Fr ( w) 
and the global bathymetric database showing the location
of the Study Area (b) Base map of survey area showing Where A(w) ard φ (w) are the amplitude and phase
the Arbitrary line(in Red). The Arbitrary line connects the spectra respectively [11]
entire six wells (black dots). The well under consideration
2.3 Cepstral Transform (CT)
is TMB 06 is deviated and located at coordinates inline
6009 and crossline 1565, right of the vertical line Cepstral decomposition is a new approach that extends

the widely used process of spectral decomposition. This it is dimensionally equivalent, several new terms were
measures bed thickness even when the bed itself cannot coined. For instance, frequency is transformed to Quefren-
be interpreted [12]. While spectral decomposition maps are cy, Magnitude to Gamnitude, Phase to Saphe, Filtering to
typically interpreted qualitatively using geomorphologic Liftering, even Analysis to Alanysis. Only Cepstrum and
pattern recognition or semi quantitatively, to infer relative Quefrency are in widespread today, though liftering is
thickness variability Spectral decomposition is rigorous popular in some fields [19].
when analyzing subtle stratigraphic plays and fractured
reservoirs. The Cepstrum processing technique gives a 3. Methodology
solution of other signals which have been convolved or
3.1 Field Data Analysis
multiplied in time domain because the operation of the
nonlinear mapping can be processed by the generalized The 3D seismic and well data used in this study were
linear system (Homomorphic system) [13.Cepstral analysis obtained over ‘Tomboy’ field by Chevron Corporation Ni-
is a special case of Homomorphic filtering. Homomor- geria. The field data comprises a base map, a suite of logs
phic filtering is a generalized technique involving (a) a from six (6) wells, and four hundred (400) seismic Inlines
nonlinear mapping to a different domain where (b) linear and 220 Crosslines. Some of the log types provided are
filters are applied, followed by (c) mapping back to the Gamma-Ray (GR), Self-Potential (SP), Resistivity, Den-
original domain. The independent variable of the Ceps- sity, Sonic, etc. Lithologic logs of Gamma-Ray and Self
trum is nominally time though not in the sense of a signal Potential were first plotted to identify the sand (hydrocar-
in the time domain, and of a Cepstral graph is called the bon) unit of interest and then correlated with Resistivity
Quefrency but it is interpreted as a frequency since we logs. This Interval corresponds to 2648-2672 milliseconds
are treating the log spectrum as a waveform. To empha- using time-depth conversion. It is important to state that
size this interchanging of domains, [14] coined the term rather than use measured seismic line near the well (TMB
Cepstrum by swapping the order of the letters in the word 06) under examination for seismic-to-well tie, as is tradi-
Spectrum. The name of the independent variable of the tionally done, a line (arbitrary) connecting the entire wells
Cepstrum is known as a Quefrency, and the linear filtering was constructed to enhance the seismic data quality for
operation is known as Liftering. The Cepstrum is useful the tie since it integrates the general geologic information
because it separates source and filter and can be applied to in the survey.
detect local periodicity. There is a complex cepstrum [15]
and a real Cepstrum. In the “real Cepstrum”, as opposed 3.2 Computation and Decomposition of Channel
to the complex Cepstrum used here, only the log ampli- Model
tude of a spectrum is used [16]. Complex Cepstrum uses
We computed the frequency attributes of a Channel sand
the information of both the magnitude and phase spectra
model of low impedance.. The Channel represents spatial
from the observed signal. The complex Cepstrum method
variation of the distribution of sediments and rocks in
is used to recover signals generated by a convolution pro-
the subsurface and can exist anywhere from river basins
cess and has been called Homomorphic deconvolution [17].
to deep-sea environments. Several of the world’s oil and
The applications can be found from seismic signal, speech
gas fields are developed from channel environments. It
and imaging processing. Kepstrum was named by [18] and
was examined with a zero phase Ricker wavelet of 50Hz
used for seismic signal analysis, although the literature
center frequency using the fast Fourier transform (FFT)
on its application is limited. The Kepstrum and complex
convolution technique. The Ricker wavelet was convolved
Cepstrum give almost same results for most purpose.
with a four-layer reflectivity series, where the third layer
The Cepstrum can be defined as the Fourier transform
is the channel feature. The computed model is presented
of the log of the spectrum. Given a noise free trace in time
as Figure 8. The acoustic velocity values used are 7926.83
(t) domain as x (t) obtained by convolution of a wavelet
ft/s inside the channel and 9031.45 ft/s outside the chan-
w(t) and reflectivity series r(t) and assuming X (f), W (f)
nel showing that channel bed, about 35.4 ms thick, is a
and R (f) are their frequency domain equivalents, then,
low impedance layer (Tables 1.0 and 1.1). The computed
Since the Fourier transform is a linear operation, the Cep-
model is inherently noisy since well data was involved in
strum is
its computation. Recall that Seismic data are usually con-
F=
[ln (mod X )] F [ln(mod W ) + F [ln (mod R)] (6) taminated by noise, even when the data has been migrated
reasonably well and are multiple-free [20].
To distinguish this new domain from time, to which The effective offset in Figure 8 is 0 to 2T, where T rep-
resents period. The Thickness of the channel is denoted in

units of the dominant (center) period corresponding to the or faulting, shows detailed visualization of bedding con-
dominant frequency of the Ricker wavelet (zero-phase) figuration and has no amplitude information. In the case of
used in modeling. The center frequency used for simulation the phase attribute, there is a flip owing to sign reversal [22].
is 50Hz implying a period of 20 milliseconds. The spectral The frequency attribute reflects attenuation spots, indicates
and cepstral properties of the model such as amplitude and hydrocarbon presence by its low frequency anomaly, shows
phase spectra as well as and gamnitude and saphe cepstra edges of low impedance thin beds, fracture zone indica-
highlighting tuning effects are displayed as Figure 9. tion-appears as low frequency zones, and also indicates
The model was data- driven and developed to test the bed thickness. Higher frequencies indicate sharp interfaces
resolution capability of the transforms algorithms and or thin shale bedding, lower frequencies indicate sand rich
to calibrate the model. The transforms employed are the bedding, sand/shale ratio indicator [23]. In Cepstral domain,
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and the Complex Cep- the Gamnitude, Saphe and Quefrency are interpreted in a
stral Transform (CCT). The SEG Y data was loaded into similar manner to Magnitude, Phase and Frequency in the
Petrel software and a reconnaissance was performed on Spectral domain. Saphe highlights discontinuity/edge and
the seismic sections of the field. A channel feature was lithologic changes, while Quefrency indicates fracture zone,
identified between inlines 5880 and 6190 and crossline hydrocarbon presence by its low values.
1565. Well 06 penetrated the structure around inline 6009.
From the log data of Well 06, some model parameters
were extracted and then used to compute new parameters
necessary for model computation. The Shale reference
point was set at 60 American Petroleum Institute (API)
units for GR log. Therefore, Formations with less than (<)
60API units were read as Sands, while those greater than
(>) 60 API units were read as Shale. Representative model
parameters were extracted from Well 06 log data at appro-
priate depths. The data consist of the GR, RHOB and ITT
readings. The logs were correlated with Self Potential (SP)
and Resistivity logs. This was followed by the computa-
tion of parameters like velocity, acoustic impedance and
reflection coefficient used for the modeling of the channel
sand structure. The convolution equation used is given by
S (t ) = W (t ) * R (t ) (7)
Figure 2. Tomboy Field, Niger Delta: Seismic Section
Where S (t) = Synthetic Seismogram; W (t) = Ricker
showing Channel feature. (Petrel Platform)
Wavelet and R (t) = Reflection Coefficient.
The maximum useful frequency or centre frequency
was set at 50Hz. This frequency was selected on the basis
of apriori information of the general seismic bandwidth
of 5-65Hz and the need to capture some structural events.
Majority of the stratigraphic traps have structural elements
and in some cases the distinction is difficult [21]. Several
center frequencies were explored (Figure 6). The channel
seismogram consists of 50 seismic traces presented in the
wiggle format.
4. Results and Interpretation

In seismic attribute analysis, amplitude or magnitude, or
envelope indicates local concentration of energy, bright
spots, gas accumulation, sequence boundaries, unconfor-
Figure 3. Well log analysis: Gamma Ray Log of Well
mities, major changes in lithology, thin bed tuning effects,
06 showing picked horizons for model computation.
etc; phase measures lateral continuity/discontinuity/edge)
(Gnuplot-General platform)

TABLES OF MODEL PARAMETERS

ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:5.0HZ
Table 1.0: Extracted Values of Some Well Parameters of Well 06 1
s/n Depth Layer H TWT TWT (AVE) GR SP RHOB TT ɸ Vsh
(ft) (ft) (ms) (ms) (API units) ( mV) ‘δ’ (µsec/ft) (%)
(g/cm3)
1 5738.0 A Top 37.5 2217.92 2225.16 70.30 346.42 2.17 115.56 35.93 0.3036
5775.5 Base 2232.41 63.75 325.56 2.25 123.86
2 7368.5 B Top 56.5 2855.23 2866.25 59.92 299.66 2.23 110.41 33.41 0.2746 0.5
WAVE AMPLITUDE
7424.0 Base 2877.28 67.99 283.10 2.32 111.04
3 7435.0 C Top 90.5 2881.39 2899.09 14.11 306.86 2.18 129.64 37.54 0.0364
7525.5 Base 2916.80 29.85 289.31 2.08 122.85
4 9105.0 Top 187.5 3534.57 3571.13 96.25 -49.12 2.40 110.85 32.30 0.6324 0
9292.5 D Base 3607.70 76.38 -32.58 2.21 103.50
5 9675.0 Top 3757.14 94.68 -20.81 2.26 102.84
Table 1.1: Computed Values of Some Well Parameters of Well 06 -0.5

-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
s/n Depth (ft) Layer H (ft) TWT RHOB ‘δ’ Velocity AV E AV E Z = δV Zb-Za Zb+Za RC==
𝑍𝑍2−𝑍𝑍1
WAVELET TIME INTERVAL,K[MS]:(SAMPLING TIME UNIT)
(AVE) (g/cm3) ‘V’ ‘δ’ ‘V’ 𝑍𝑍2+𝑍𝑍1
(ft/s)
1 5738.0 A 37.5 2225.16 2.17 8653.51 2.21 8363.57 18483.48 Z1 Z2-Z1 Z2 +Z1 0.0517 R1
5775.5 2.25 8073.63 2017.91 38984.87

(a) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Model at Centre
2 7368.5 B 56.5 2866.25 2.23 9057.15 2.27 9031.45 20501.39 Z2 Z3 –Z2 Z3+Z2 -0.0967 R2
Frequency of 5Hz
7424.0 2.32 9005.76 -3617.25 37385.53
3 7435.0 C 90.5 2899.09 2.18 7713.66 2.13 7926.83 16884.14 Z3 Z4-Z3 Z4 +Z3 0.1199 R3 ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:10.0HZ
1
7525.5 2.08 8140.00 4601.33 38369.61
4 9105.0 D 187.5 3571.04 2.40 9021.19 2.30 9341.51 21485.47 Z4 Z5-Z4 Z5+Z4 0.0114 R4
9292.5 2.21 9661.83 497.18 43468.12

5 9675.0 2.26 9726.84 2.26 9726.84 21982.65 Z5 0.5
WAVE AMPLITUDE
Where h = Interval Thickness; Z =Acoustic Impedance; RC= Reflection Coefficient; AVE = Average Values; TWT = Two Way Travel Time; TT =
10 6 𝑍𝑍2−𝑍𝑍1
Transit Time; ɸ = Porosity; Vsh = Volume of Shale; Velocity ‘V’ = 𝑡𝑡 where t = Sonic Transit time or Wave Slowness (µsec/ft), RC =
𝑍𝑍2+𝑍𝑍1
0
A schematic diagram incorporating all model parame-
ters of the channel is shown in Figure 4.
-0.5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
(b) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Model at Centre
Frequency of 10Hz

1
0.5
WAVE AMPLITUDE
Figure 4. A Schematic diagram of the Channel Feature

(Shown in Red) -0.5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
1
(c) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Model at Centre
Frequency of 20Hz

1
0.5
WAVE AMPLITUDE
0.5
WAVE AMPLITUDE
-0.5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-0.5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Figure 5. Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand WAVELET TIME INTERVAL,K[MS]:(SAMPLING TIME UNIT)
Model with Centre Frequency of 50Hz (d) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Model at Centre
Frequency of 25Hz

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA(50HZ RICKER W AVELET)

ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:30.0HZ 8
1
ABS. MAGNITUDE
6
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.5
WAVE AMPLITUDE
PHASE [DEGREES]
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
0 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FREQUENCY [HERTZ]
(a): Amplitude and Phase Spectra (50Hz Ricker Wavelet)

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA(SAND-REFLECTIVITY)
-0.5 2
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
ABS. MAGNITUDE
WAVELET TIME INTERVAL,K[MS]:(SAMPLING TIME UNIT) 1.5
(e) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Model at Centre 1
Frequency of 30Hz
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:40.0HZ 0.08

1
PHASE [DEGREES]
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.5 FREQUENCY [HERTZ]
WAVE AMPLITUDE
(b) Amplitude and Phase Spectra (Sand-Reflectivity)

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA(SHALE-REFLECTIVITY)
1.5
ABS. MAGNITUDE
1
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-0.5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 0.25
PHASE [DEGREES]
0.2
(f) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Sand Model at 0.15
0.1
Centre Frequency of 40Hz 0.05
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FREQUENCY [HERTZ]

(c) Amplitude and Phase Spectra (Shale-Reflectivity)
1
Figure 7. Amplitude and Phase Spectra (Sand and Shale

Reflectivities)
0.5
WAVE AMPLITUDE
CHANNEL SAND MODEL SIMULATED WITH 5OHz RICKER WAVELET

-2000
0
-0.5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-2500
TRACE(TWT)(mSECONDS)
(g) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Model at Centre
Frequency of 50Hz
-3000
1
0.5 -3500
WAVE AMPLITUDE
0
-4000
-0.5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-4500
(i) Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet for Channel Sand Model at Centre 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Frequency of 60Hz LINE(PERIOD,T(SECONDS))
Figure 6. Zero Phase Ricker Wavelet Analysis at Various Figure 8. 50-Trace, 50Hz Field Data-Derived Channel
Center Frequencies and Time Breadths Model: Original amplitude

MAGNITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA OF CHANNEL MODEL

8
ABS. MAGNITUDE
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
12000
PHASE [DEGREES]
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FREQUENCY [HERTZ] Figure 11. Seismic Section Showing Channel Feature.
(a) Magnitude and Phase Spectra of Channel Model (Petrel Platform)
GAMNITUDE AND SAPHE CEPSTRA OF CHANNEL MODEL
400 CHANNEL SAND MODEL SIMULATED WITH 5OHz RICKER WAVELET
-2000
ABS. GAMNITUDE
300
200 -2500
100
-3000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
4 -3500
x 10
2
SAPHE [DEGREES]
1.5 -4000
-4500
0.5 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
LINE(PERIOD,T(SECONDS))
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
QUEFRENCY [HERTZ] Figure 12. 50-Trace, 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel
(b) Gamnitude and Saphe Cepstra of Channel Model Model: Original Model Data
Figure 9. Spectra and Cepstra of 50Hz Field Data-De-

rived Channel Model. There is more information recovery
in the Cepstra plot as reflected in the attributes shown
MAGNITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA OF CHANNEL MODEL

ABS.MAG
5
(a) Field Seismic Section showing channel feature. (Petrel Platform)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 -2000
CHANNEL SAND MODEL SIMULATED W ITH 5OHz RICKER W AVELET
FREQ[Hz]
-2500
PHASE[DEG]
10000
-3000
5000 -3500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 -4000
FREQ[Hz]
-4500
GAMNITUDE AND SAPHE CEPSTRA OF CHANNEL MODEL 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
ABS.GAM.
5 (b) 50-Trace, 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: Original

Model Data
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 CHANNEL SAND MODEL SIMULATED WITH 5OHz RICKER WAVELET
-2000
QUEF[Hz]
SAPHE[DEG.]
5
x 10 -2500
2
1 -3000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 -3500
QUEF.[Hz] data1
-4000 data2
data3
data4
-4500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Figure 10. 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: An

PHASE(PERIOD,T(SECONDS))
(c) An abridged four (4)-trace Phase Attribute Section by Discrete

integrated display of Spectral and Cepstral attributes plots Fourier Transform to indicate improved lithologic change/segmen-
to illustrate their resolving capabilities tation. Data1: Shale, data2: Sand, data3: Sand, data4: Shale.


third layer is the channel bed. The Discrete Fourier and
-2000
Complex Cepstral transforms were used to highlight the

-2500
channel’s average/response and precise attributes. Our
-3000
aim was to develop a practical method for processing and
-3500 mapping of stratigraphy which is usually masked after
-4000
data1
data2
normal data interpretation. The DFT and CCT were used
data3
data4 to calibrate and analyze a computed channel model with
respect to subtle signal variation as obtained in field strati-
-4500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
SAPHE(PERIOD,T(SECONDS))
(d) An abridged four (4)-trace Saphe Attribute Section by Cepstral graphic works.
Transform to indicate enhanced Lithologic change/segmentation.
Data1: Shale, data2: Sand, data3: Sand, data4: Shale,
The results obtained(from the samples presented) show
the resolution capability of the Complex Cepstrum in
Figure 13. 50 Hz: Comparative display of Field Seismic separating source and filter and the detection of local peri-
Section, Data-Derived Channel Model, and an abridged odicity which are critical geological parameters in under-
Phase and Saphe Attribute Sections standing stratigraphic details and hydrocarbon fairways
which impact on enhanced recovery. We implemented
-2000
it on both standard and general platforms and found the
-2500
match, on comparison to be convincing. This technology
-3000 has application in the delimitation, delineation and char-

-3500 acterization of subtle geologic targets such as thin-bed
-4000
reservoir, areas of uncertainty in data and time such as in
. -4500
complex geologic environments as in deep waters, mar-
ginal fields, etc and and similar geologic situations.
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
(a) 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: Original Model Data
-2000
CHANNEL SAND MODEL SIMULATED WITH 5OHz RICKER WAVELET Acknowledgments
-2500
The authors wish to thank Chevron Corporation, Nigeria
-3000 for making the Seismic and well data available for use.
-3500
Thanks are also due to the Authorities of University of
Port Harcourt, Nigeria, Federal University of Petroleum
Resources, Effurun, Nigeria and the Petroleum Training
-4000
-4500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
PHASE(PERIOD,T(SECONDS))
0.12 0.14 Institute, Effurun, Nigeria for the use of their computing
(b) 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: DFT Phase Section facilities.
References
-2000
-2500
[1] Satinder, C., Marfurt, K. J., Misra, S. Seismic Attri-

butes on Frequency-Enhanced Seismic Data; Recov-

-3000
-3500
ery, 2011
-4000 [2] Ofuyah, W.N.,Alao,O.A., Olorunniwo, M.A. The Ap-
-4500
plication of Complex Seismic Attributes in Thin Bed
Reservoir Analysis,Journal of Environment and Earth
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
SAPHE(PERIOD,T(SECONDS))
(c) 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: CCT Saphe Section Science, 2014, 4(18): 1-12
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Figure 14. Comparative Display of Field Data-Derived
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ARTICLE
Analysis of Heavy Metals Contamination and Quality Parameters of
Groundwater in Ihetutu, Ishiagu
A. G. Benibo*　R. Sha’Ato R. A. Wuana A. U. Itodo
Department of Chemistry and Centre for Agrochemical Technology & Environmental Research (CATER), Federal Uni-
versity of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria
Article history The levels of some quality parameters and heavy metals in groundwater in
Received: 28 June 2020 Ihetutu minefield of Ishiagu were analyzed in four seasons (rainy, late rainy,
dry, and late dry), in order to evaluate the deterioration of the groundwater
Accepted: 14 July 2020 qualities in the area. Pb-Zn mining and several other related activities have
Published Online: 30 July 2020 been going on for several decades in Ihetutu, and thus render the groundwa-
ter resources in the area less available for consumption, through toxic chem-
Keywords: ical substances expected to be constantly discharged to the groundwater
Contamination bodies from the mines and other domestic wastes. The aim of this study was
thus to determine the levels of heavy metals and other physico-chemical
Pollution properties in the groundwater, to assess its suitability for drinking and other
Environment domestic purposes in Ihetutu. Samples were collected from dug-wells and
Mining underground water platforms, and analyzed using standard procedures, for
their physico-chemical properties and heavy metals levels. Results obtained
Groundwater
for the various seasons ranged as pH = 6.80-8.72, EC = 190.00-1120.00 µS/
cm, alkalinity = 4.20-30.60 mg/L, TDS = 105.00-567.00 mg/L, TH = 8.00-
44.00 mg/L, Cl- = 26.00-126.00 mg/L, Cu = 0.00-0.30 mg/L, Zn = 0.00-
0.42 mg/L, Fe = 0.00-3.93 mg/L, Mn = 0.00-0.59 mg/L, and Pb = 0.00-0.43
mg/L. Average levels of analyzed parameters in study area were: pH = 7.56,
EC = 424.06 µS/cm, alkalinity = 17.88 mg/L, TDS = 218.69 mg/L, TH =
21.88 mg/L, Cl- = 54.31 mg/L, Cu = 0.20 mg/L, Zn = 0.51 mg/L, Fe = 2.55
mg/L, Mn = 0.32 mg/L, Pb = 0.38 mg/L. Mean levels of most parameters
were found to be within standard guidelines/limits but were above control
levels, giving an indication of deterioration of the groundwater qualities in
the area. Also, seasonal concentrations of most parameters, including the
heavy metals were in the order of LDS>DRS>LRS>RNS. Heavy metals
mean concentrations also trended in the order of Fe>Zn>Pb>Mn>Cu. Cor-
relations among heavy metals were all positive, with the strongest between
Cu and Pb (r = 0.921) while the least was between Cu and Mn (r = 0.176).
ANOVA showed no statistically significant differences among sampling
stations in study area, as p-values (0.757) was higher than the significance
level (α=0.05). Comparison of the results with control values, indicated
cases of deterioration of the groundwater quality in the study area. This
confirmed that the groundwater resources in the area were adversely affect-
ed by wastes and discharges from the mining activities and several other
sources including domestic wastes.
　
A. G. Benibo,
Department of Chemistry and Centre for Agrochemical Technology & Environmental Research (CATER), Federal University of
Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria;
Email: ao_benibo@yahoo.com

1. Introduction from the mines and its wastes dumps and tailings; and
M
other point and non-point sources including domestic
ining has become an indispensable component wastes and run-offs from farms. This suspicion made it
of economic resource at Ihietutu, Ishiagu, in imperative to carry out this study. Huge amount of toxic
Ivo River Local Government Area of Ebonyi chemical substances constantly discharged into ground-
State of Nigeria. Ihetutu mine in Ishiagu is the oldest water bodies have become sources of contamination and
mine in his study on lead (Pb) mining carried out at four threat to human health, thus making assessment of their
mining sites in Ebonyi State [1]. It is thus expected that levels and impacts a necessary one.
various toxic chemical substances including heavy metals,
etc must have accumulated to very high levels in the area, 2. Materials and Methods
considering the very long time of existence and operation
of the mines. 2.1 The Study Area
Mining operations constitute the most important sourc- The Ihetutu Hill is located in Ishiagu, Ebonyi State of
es of pollutants such as heavy metals and many other tox- Nigeria, and is within the Lower Benue trough. Lead-zinc
ic chemical substances in the environment. It is a business
and hard rock (aggregate) mining has been ongoing in the
that seriously damages the environment [2]. Its operations
area since the 1950s. The Ishiagu area covers an expanse
and associated industries generate large volumes of waste-
of about 450 km2 and supports an estimated population
water, drainage wastes and tailings, which plunders the
of over two hundred and fifty thousand persons [8,9]. The
landscape and contaminate the surrounding environment
study area falls within latitudes 5o 51/ N and 5o 59/ N and
with inorganic pollutants, particularly heavy metals. Most
longitudes 7o 24/ E and 7o 40/ E covering an area of over
mining operations have serious adverse effect on air, wa-
450 km2. The area is accessible through the Enugu - Port
ter, soil and vegetation [3]. On a global scale, it was esti-
Harcourt Railway line, the Enugu-Port Harcourt oil pipe-
mated that about 3000 billion tons of mine overburden is
line, the Enugu - Port Harcourt Express Road, the Lekwe-
dumped annually, and that about 386,000 hectares of land
si-Obiagu Road which, and the Okigwe - Afikpo Road [10]
is disturbed by mining activities [4].
(Figures 1).
Activities of mining are well known for their danger-
ous impact on the environment due to deposition of large
volume of waste on the soil and water. Adverse environ-
mental consequences of open pit mining include sediment
and water qualities degradation due to destruction of veg-
etation, exposure of the soil to surface run-offs, as well as
dumps that have been confirmed to accommodate harmful
minerals and chemicals that contaminate the soil, plant,
water and air quality [5].
Various chemicals used during ore processing cause
high degree of pollution of groundwater bodies. Through
wrong application, faulty disposal system, poor storage
system and several other conditions prevalent at the time
of operations, these chemicals used at mine sites could
also cause intense pollution of the environment [6]. Water
Figure 1. Map showing sampling stations in study and
pollution increases due to human population, industrial- control areas
ization, the use of fertilizers in agriculture and man-made
activity[7], which include mining operations, artisan activi- 2.2 Sample Collection and Analysis
ties; and natural sources such as weathering of rocks.
The objective of this research was to evaluate the qual- Samples were collected in four seasons including rainy
ity of groundwater available for drinking and other do- season (May), late rainy season (September), dry season
mestic purposes in Ihetutu where several mining activities (December), and late dry season (April) from both study
have been ongoing for several decades now. Groundwater and control areas (which is about 12 km away from the
resources were only some few kilometers away from the study area). Four groundwater samples were collected from
numerous Pb-Zn mining sites, and were thus expected to the study area, each season, directly from dug-wells and
be seriously polluted by wastes leachates and discharges underground spring water platforms and labeled as SGW9,

SGW10, SGW11, SGW12, while one sample was collected the well, and absorption of carbon dioxide and bicarbon-
from the control area and labeled as CGW2 each season also. ates[12]. Discharge of domestic waste and other organic
Collected samples were digested and analyzed to determine pollutants into the water bodies that run through the farms
the physico-chemical parameters and heavy metal concen- and located along the paths of the villagers could also be
trations, using standard methods and procedures[11]. pH and responsible for the increase in pH[13].
Electrical Conductivity were determined in-situ (on site).
Table 2. Mean values of physico-chemical parameters and
Table 1. Sampling Field Data Summary Heavy Metals in groundwater
Sampling Sampling Station Parameter (CGW2) SGW9 SGW10 SGW11 SGW12
Sampling Dates Latitude Longitude
Stations Seasons Locations
13/05/2018; RNS; Ukwu pH 7.32 7.53 7.67 7.58 7.46
CGW2 29/09/2018; LRS; Okwe EC (µS/cm) 184.75 251.25 475.50 662.00 307.50
N 5o50'54" E 7o29'32"
(Control) 29/11/2018; DRS; Well, Utu-
12/04/2019 LDS ru. TDS (mg/L) 128.50 136.50 245.00 333.50 159.75
13/05/2018; RNS; Ogwu TH (mg/L) 22.00 13.90 25.15 23.53 24.95
01/10/2018; LRS; spring
SGW9 N 5o57'3" E 7o33'4" Alkalinity (mg/L) 19.03 11.88 26.28 19.95 13.40
01/12/2018; DRS; well, Ihetu-
-
14/04/2019 LDS tu. Cl (mg/L) 70.75 42.25 56.25 79.00 39.75
Idu Com- Cu (mg/L) 0.25 0.14 0.27 0.18 0.27
13/05/2018; RNS;
pound
01/10/2018; LRS; Fe (mg/L) 3.39 1.86 3.52 3.47 2.23
SGW10 Well, Ihet- N 5o57'7" E 7o33'6"
01/12/2018; DRS;
utu. Zn (mg/L) 2.40 000 0.41 0.38 0.74
14/04/2019 LDS
Mn (mg/L) 0.07 0.10 0.37 0.54 0.22
13/05/2018; RNS; Amaog-
01/10/2018; LRS; wute Pb (mg/L) 0.33 0.00 0.42 0.30 0.41
SGW11 N 5o57'11" E 7o33'8"
01/12/2018; DRS; Well, Ihet-
14/04/2019 LDS utu.
13/05/2018; RNS; 3.1.2 Electrical Conductivity
Amaukwa
01/10/2018; LRS;
SGW12 Well, N 5o57'12" E 7o33'15"
01/12/2018; DRS; Mean EC ranged from 251.25 to 662.00 µS/cm with
Ihetutu.
14/04/2019 LDS SGW11 having the highest value while SGW9 had the
Note: RNS = Rainy Season, LRS = Late Rainy Season, DRS = Dry Sea- lowest. All study area values were higher than that of con-
son, LDS = Late Dry Season
trol (CGW2) (Table 2). Seasonal conductivity values for
groundwater samples from the study area also increased in
3. Results and Discussion
the order of RNS<LRS<DRS<LDS (Figure 3), exception
3.1 Physico-chemical Properties of Groundwater of SGW12 which peaked during the dry season (DRS).
in Ihetutu Average conductivity value in study area was 424.06 µS/
cm (Table 3). This was above EU standard value of 250
3.1.1 pH µS/cm but below SON standard value of 1000 µS/cm (Ta-
pH peaked during the dry season (DRS) at CGW10, ble 4). High concentration of dissolved salts due to poor
CGW11, CGW12 but during the late dry season (LDS) at irrigation management, minerals from rain water runoffs,
CGW9 and the control station (CGW2); while the lowest or discharges (leachates) from mines could lead to in-
values at all sampling stations were recorded during the crease in conductivity[14].
rainy season (RNS) (Figure 2). Mean pH values range was
3.1.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
7.46-7.67, with SGW10 having the highest and SGW12
the lowest. However, the control groundwater (CGW2) Mean TDS values ranged from 136.50 to 333.50 mg/L,
with a mean value of 7.32 is lower than the mean pH and were all higher than the mean value of the control sam-
values of all the samples from the study area (Table 2). ple (CGW2) which was 128.50 mg/L (Table 2). Seasonal
Average pH value in study area was 7.56 (Table 3). This TDS values for the samples also increased in the order of
value was within the standard guidelines of USEPA, RNS<LRS<DRS<LDS, exception of SGW12 which rather
SON, NESREA and WHO (Table 4). The increased pH peaked during the dry season (DRS) (Figure 4). Average
values in the groundwater samples could be due to the in- TDS value in study area was 218.69 mg/L (Table 3), and
creasing buffering capacity of alkaline minerals leaching was below USEPA, SON and NESREA guidelines (Table
from surrounding underground and surface rocks/soil, to 4). The groundwater samples mean values were all below
the groundwater. The increase in pH could also be due standard reference values indicating a rating of no overall
to the reduction in the rate of photosynthetic activities in pollution. Decrease in mean TDS concentration in ground-

water samples could also result from high dilution effect

from the rain water during the rainy seasons. The low con- TDS
centration of TDS especially in the groundwater, and some
surface water samples could also be due to the presence of 600.00
Concentration (mg/L)
granitic materials which resists dissolution in that area[15]. 500.00 RNS
LRS
400.00
3.1.4 Alkalinity DRS
300.00
Alkalinity increased from rainy to dry season in the sam- LDS
200.00
ples, though there was a decrease in the late dry season 100.00
(LDS) at SGW10, SGW11 and SGW12 (Figure 5). Mean
-
values also ranged from 11.88 to 26.28 mg/L, with SGW9
having the lowest value and SGW10 the highest. Com-
9
10
11
12
2
W
W
W
W
pared with control (CGW2) value of 19.03 mg/L, SGW9
SG
CG
SG
SG
SG
and SGW12 values were lower while those of SGW10 Sampling Stations
and SGW11 were higher (Table 2). Increase in alkalinity
could be due to the discharge of carbonate and bicarbon-
Figure 4. Seasonal concentrations of TDS
ate salts from surrounding rocks/soils to the water bodies.
Average alkalinity value in study area was 17.88 mg/L
(Table 3). It has been reported that, in the Ishiagu mining Alkalinity
area, there is significant volume of mine waste and large
scale presence of carbonate minerals, especially dolomite 35.00
and siderite, which makes the acid mine drain (AMD) in 30.00 RNS
the area to tend towards a neutral or alkaline state [16]. 25.00 LRS
20.00 DRS
pH 15.00 LDS
10.00
10.00 5.00
RNS
8.00 -
LRS
pH Value
6.00 DRS
9
10
11
12
2
4.00
W
LDS
W
W
W
SG
CG
2.00
SG
SG
SG
- Sampling Stations
9
10
11
12
2
W
W
W
W
SG
CG
Figure 5. Seasonal concentrations of alkalinity

SG
SG
SG
Sampling Stations
Figure 2. Seasonal levels of pH Total Hardness

50.00
Concentration (mg/L
RNS
EC 40.00 LRS
1,200.00 30.00 DRS
RNS
Conductivity (µS/cm)
1,000.00 20.00 LDS

LRS
800.00 10.00
600.00 DRS
LDS -
400.00
200.00
9
10
11
12
2
W
-
W
W
SG
CG
SG
SG
SG
9
10
SG 11
CG 2
2
Sampling Stations
1
W
W
W
W
W
SG
SG
SG
Sampling Stations
Figure 6. Seasonal concentrations of Total Hardness

Figure 3. Seasonal concentrations of EC

Chloride [Fe]
140.00 4.00
120.00 RNS
3.50
100.00 LRS
80.00 DRS 3.00
60.00 LDS 2.50
40.00 2.00
20.00 1.50
- 1.00
0.50
9
10
11
CG 2
2
1
W
W
W
-
SG
SG
SG
SG
SGW9
SGW10
SGW11
SGW12
CGW2
WHO
USEPA
SON
EU
NESREA
Sampling Stations
Figure 7. Seasonal concentrations of Chloride

Figure 10. Mean Conc. of Fe in Groundwater, with Con-
trol and Standard guidelines
[Cu]
2.50 [Mn]
2.00 Concentration (mg/L) 0.60
1.50 0.50
0.40
1.00
0.30
0.50
0.20
- 0.10
SGW9
SGW10
SGW11
SGW12
CGW2
WHO
USEPA
SON
EU
NESREA
-
SGW9
SGW10
SGW11
SGW12
CGW2
WHO
USEPA
SON
EU
NESREA
Figure 8. Mean Conc. of Cu in Groundwater, with Con-
Figure 11. Mean Conc. of Mn in Groundwater, with Con-
[Zn]
6.00 [Pb]
5.00
0.50
4.00 0.40
3.00 0.30
2.00 0.20
1.00 0.10
- 0.00
SGW9
SGW10
SGW11
SGW12
CGW2
WHO
USEPA
SON
EU
NESREA
SGW9
SGW10
SGW11
SGW12
CGW2
WHO
USEPA
SON
EU
NESREA
Figure 9. Mean Conc. of Zn in Groundwater, with Con- Figure 12. Mean Conc. of Pb in Groundwater, with Con-
trol and Standard guidelines trol and Standard guidelines

3.1.5 Total Hardness below SON, NESREA and WHO guidelines (Table 4).
Total hardness values of all samples were within standard
Hardness is a measure of the capacity of water to form limits/guidelines and thus satisfactory. Also according to
precipitates or foam with soap and scales with certain some standard classifications[]19], the water samples were
ions present in the water[17]. It is defined as the sum of classified to be soft, as their concentrations were all within
the concentrations of calcium (Ca 2+) and magnesium the range of 0 - 60 mg/L.
(Mg 2+) ions expressed as mg/L of CaCO 3, since soap
is precipitated mostly by these ions[18]. Mean levels in 3.1.6 Chloride
groundwater ranged from 13.90 mg/L at SGW9 to 25.15
mg/L at SGW10 (Table 1). Seasonal concentrations were Mean concentration ranged from 39.75-79.00 mg/L. Ex-
highest during late dry seasons (LDS) at SGW9, SGW10, ception of SGW11, all study area samples had concentra-
SGW11 and SGW2 (control station) but during dry sea- tions lower than control (CSW2) value (Table 2). Chloride
son (DRS) at SGW12 (Figure 6). Average total hardness levels in samples also increased from rainy to dry season,
value in study area was 21.88 mg/L (Table 3), and was exception of SGW10 and SGW12 whose concentrations,
Table 3. Seasonal levels of physico-chemical parameters and Heavy Metals in groundwater

Sample Sample TDS (mg/ Cl- Cu Mn (mg/
pH EC (µS/cm) TH (mg/L) Alk (mg/L) Fe (mg/L) Zn (mg/L) Pb (mg/L)
Station Season L) (mg/L) (mg/L) L)
RNS 6.80 190.00 105.00 10.00 10.60 26.00 0.08 0.44 <0.001 0.09 <0.001
SGW9 LRS 7.00 232.00 109.00 8.00 11.00 30.00 0.09 0.45 <0.001 0.10 <0.001
DRS 8.15 285.00 143.00 18.70 12.00 55.00 0.18 3.11 <0.001 0.10 <0.001
LDS 8.17 298.00 189.00 18.90 13.92 58.00 0.20 3.43 <0.001 0.11 <0.001
RNS 7.00 360.00 198.00 14.00 26.00 52.00 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.17 <0.001
SGW10 LRS 7.80 382.00 201.00 15.00 26.40 56.00 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.21 <0.001
DRS 8.72 578.00 289.00 31.90 30.60 58.60 0.30 3.11 0.41 0.59 0.42
LDS 7.16 582.00 292.00 39.70 22.10 58.40 0.24 3.92 0.41 0.51 0.43
RNS 6.90 220.00 121.00 12.00 19.00 38.00 0.06 <0.001 <0.001 0.49 <0.001
SGW11 LRS 7.60 258.00 121.00 13.00 20.00 42.00 0.11 <0.001 <0.001 0.53 <0.001
DRS 8.60 1 050.00 525.00 30.80 22.40 110.00 0.24 3.01 0.34 0.59 0.29
LDS 7.20 1 120.00 567.00 38.30 18.40 126.00 0.30 3.93 0.42 0.54 0.30
RNS 6.80 210.00 116.00 12.00 4.20 32.00 <0.001 0.29 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
SGW12 LRS 7.50 225.00 110.00 18.00 4.40 33.00 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
DRS 8.43 483.00 241.00 44.00 27.00 55.00 0.27 2.75 0.42 0.23 0.42
LDS 7.09 312.00 172.00 25.80 18.00 39.00 0.27 3.66 1.06 0.21 0.41
AVER-
7.56 424.06 218.69 21.88 17.88 54.31 0.20 2.55 0.51 0.32 0.38
AGE
RNS 5.80 13.00 72.00 10.00 11.60 44.00 <0.001 3.60 <0.001 0.07 <0.001
CGW2 LRS 6.10 15.00 75.00 16.00 12.50 45.00 <0.001 3.96 <0.001 0.06 <0.001
(control) DRS 8.67 352.00 176.00 31.00 25.00 98.00 0.25 2.87 0.40 0.06 0.32
LDS 8.70 359.00 191.00 31.00 27.00 96.00 0.24 3.12 4.40 0.08 0.33
Note: RNS = Rainy Season; LRS = Late Rainy Season; DRS = Dry Season; LDS = Late Dry Season.
Table 4. Standard Guidelines for Drinking Water

Parameter USEPA[20] SON[21] NESREA[22] WHO[23] EU[24]
pH 6.5 - 9.5 6.5 - 8.5 6.5 - 9.2 6.5 - 9.5 NM
EC (µS/cm) NM 1,000.00 NG NG 250.00
TDS (mg/L) 500.00 500.00 1,500.00 NG NM
Chloride (mg/L) 250.00 250.00 600.00 250.00 250.00
TH (mg/L) NM 150.00 500.00 200 NM
Alkalinity (mg/L) NG NG NG NG NG
Cu (mg/L) 1.30 1.00 0.075 2.00 2.00
Zn (mg/L) 5.00 3.00 0.80 NG NM
Fe (mg/L) 0.30 0.30 1.00 NG 0.20
Mn (mg/L) 0.05 0.20 0.50 NG 0.05
Pb (mg/L) 0.015 0.01 0.075 0.01 0.010
Note: NG = No guidelines; NM = Not mentioned

like that of the control sample (CGW2), decreased during REA limits[20][21][22] (Figure 10). Average Fe concentration
the late dry season (LDS) (Figure 7). Average chloride in study area was 2.55 mg/L, while seasonal levels were
level of 54.31 mg/L obtained in the study area (Table 3) also higher in the dry seasons than in the rainy seasons,
was below referenced standard guidelines (Table 4). High in the order of RNS<LRS<DRS<LDS (Table 3). Iron in
presence of chloride in water could be due to pesticides groundwater could result from natural sources such as
from farms, continuous discharge of mine wastes, and ef- minerals from sediments and rocks; or from mining, in-
fluents containing chloride salts from chloride rich rocks dustrial wastes, and corroding metals in the surrounding
in the area. However, the lower chloride concentrations soil[25]
observed during the rainy reason could be due to dilution
of the water by rain water[7]. High chloride content in 3.2.4 Manganese
water causes eye and nose irritation, stomach discomfort, Groundwater samples in the study area had mean man-
increase in corrosive character of the water[12]. ganese concentrations ranged of 0.10 mg/L at SGW9 to
0.54 mg/L at SGW11. All samples from the study area had
3.2 Heavy Metals in Groundwater
higher mean manganese concentrations than the control
3.2.1 Copper (CGW2) sample (Table 2). Only SGW11 has higher Mn
concentration than NESREA recommended value of 0.50
Mean copper concentrations in groundwater ranged from mg/L (Figure 11). Average level of Mn in the study area
0.14 mg/L at SGW9 (Ogwu spring well) to 0.27 mg/L at was 0.32 mg/L, while seasonal concentrations were also
both SGW10 and SGW12 (Table 2). SGW9 and SGW11 higher in the dry seasons than in the rainy seasons (Table
were lower in mean concentrations than that of control 3).
(CGW2). Average level of Cu in study area was 0.20 mg/
L while seasonal concentrations were also higher in the 3.2.5 Lead
dry seasons than in the rainy seasons, and in the order of
RNS<LRS<DRS<LDS (Table 3). All samples were with- Lead mean concentrations ranged from 0.00 mg/L at
in the standard guidelines of USEPA, SON, WHO, and SGW11 (<0.001 mg/L seasonal concentrations) to 0.42
EU[20][21][23][24] but higher than that of NESREA[22] (Figure mg/L at SGW10. However, control (CGW2) value
8). was higher than that of SGW9 and SGW11 (Table 2).
Average Pb concentration in study area was 0.38 mg/
3.2.2 Zinc L and seasonal levels higher in the dry seasons than in
the rainy seasons (Table 3). All samples also had higher
Mean concentrations of Zn ranged from 0.00 mg/L at mean values than referenced standard limits of USEPA,
SGW9 (seasonal concentrations <0.001 mg/L) to 0.74 SON, NESREA, WHO, and EU[20][21][22][23][24] (Figure 12),
mg/L at SGW12 (Table 2). All stations had lower mean exception of SGW9 (Ogwu Spring well). This indicated
concentrations than the control groundwater (CGW2) in a situation of lead pollution of the underground water
Uturu. Average Zn concentration in study area was 0.51 bodies at the affected stations in the study area, which
mg/L, and seasonal concentrations were higher in the dry could be due to high concentrations of lead ore deposits
seasons than in the rainy seasons (Table 3). Zn concen- in the area[26]. Water-soluble zinc in soils can contami-
trations were below USEPA, SON, and NESREA lim- nate groundwater[27] through leaching from the soil to the
its[20][21][22] (Figure 9). The percentage of zinc in the earth water body.
crust is approximately 0.05 g/kg, and its major common
mineral is sphalerite (ZnS), which usually unites with 3.3 Correlations of Heavy Metals in Groundwater
other sulfides[19], and could infiltrate underground water
resources. There were positive correlations among the heavy metals.
However, strongest positive correlation was between Cu
3.2.3 Iron and Pb (r = 0.921) while the least was between Cu and
Mn (r = 0.176) (Table 5). The positive correlations could
Mean Fe concentration ranged from 1.86 mg/L at SGW9 be an indication of the same source of heavy metals pollu-
to 3.52 mg/L at SGW10. SGW9 and SGW12 had lower tion [28], which could be natural sources including weath-
mean concentrations than the control sample (CGW2) at ering of rocks, the Pb-Zn mining activities in several parts
Uturu (Table 2). Groundwater samples in the study area of the Ihetutu area, and other sundry point and non-point
were observed to be polluted with iron, as they all had sources such as leachates from domestic wastes dumps.
mean concentrations well above USEPA, SON, and NES-

Table 5. Correlation of heavy metals in groundwater sam- enforce compliance with laid down standards/regulations.
ples from Ihetutu hills This will safeguard the groundwater resources in the area,
and consequently human lives that depend on it.
Cu Zn Fe Mn Pb
Cu 1 References
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[1] Elom, N. I. Lead (Pb) Mining in Ebonyi State, Ni-
Fe 0.347291232 0.223578813 1
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[2] Nwaugo, V. O., Obiekezie, S. O., Etok, C. A. Post
3.4 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Operational Effects of Heavy Metal Mining on Soil
Quality in Ishiagu, Ebonyi State. International Jour-
ANOVA was carried out on the means of the different
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:242-246.
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[3] Jain, S., Rai, N., Rathore, D. S. Water Quality As-
significant differences in means of the parameters among
sessment of certain Marble Mining areas of Udaipur
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4. Conclusion [4] Prasad, M. N. V. Phytoremediation in India. In Phy-
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we University, Awka (UNIZIK), Nigeria, 2009.
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[9] Imo State Ministry of Works and Transport (IMWT).
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and in the order of RNS<LRS<DRS<LDS. However, it is
[10] Sha’Ato, R., Benibo, A. G., Itodo, A. U., Wuana, R. A.
recommended that adequate measures must be urgently
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REVIEW
Review of Groundwater Potentials and Groundwater Hydrochemistry
of Semi-arid Hadejia-Yobe Basin, North-eastern Nigeria
Saadu Umar Wali1*　Ibrahim Mustapha Dankani2　Sheikh Danjuma Abubakar2　Murtala
Abubakar Gada2　Abdulqadir Abubakar Usman1　Ibrahim Mohammad Shera1　Kabiru
Jega Umar3
1. Department of Geography, Federal University Birnin kebbi, P.M.B 1157. Kebbi State, Nigeria
2. Department of Geography, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, P.M.B. 2346. Sokoto State, Nigeria
3. Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Federal University Birnin kebbi, P.M.B 1157. Kebbi State, Nigeria
Article history Understanding the hydrochemical and hydrogeological physiognomies of

Received: 13 July 2020 subsurface water in a semi-arid region is important for the effective man-
agement of water resources. This paper presents a thorough review of the
Accepted: 24 July 2020 hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of the Hadejia-Yobe basin. The hydro-
Published Online: 30 July 2020 chemical and hydrogeological configurations as reviewed indicated that the
Chad Formation is the prolific aquifer in the basin. Boreholes piercing the
Keywords: Gundumi formation have a depth ranging from 20-85 meters. The hydro-
Hydrogeology chemical composition of groundwater revealed water of excellent quality,
as all the studied parameters were found to have concentrations within
Sedimentary aquifers WHO and Nigeria’s standard for drinking water quality. However, further
Basement complex terrain studies are required for further evaluation of water quality index, heavy
Physical parameters metal pollution index, and irrigation water quality. Also, geochemical, and
stable isotope analysis is required for understanding the provenance of sa-
Chemical parameters
linity and hydrogeochemical controls on groundwater in the basin.
　
1. Introduction trialization, increased irrigated agriculture, and population
growth [3-6]. Groundwater protection and conservation pro-
The hydrochemical assessment of subsurface for local, cedures have been largely ignored in mainstream practices
industrial, and agricultural uses required a valuation of the [2]
. Agriculture is the primary and major source of subsur-
hydrochemical and hydrogeologic configurations of the face water pollution in arid and semi-arid areas [7,8]. Results
subsurface aquifers [1]. In a typical semi-arid region like indicated that pesticides, irrigation water quality, and nitro-
north-eastern Nigeria, groundwater is the most important gen fertilizers as major sources of pollutants in aquifers [9].
source of water supply for households, irrigation agricul- In arid and semi-arid regions like the Hadejia-Yobe ba-
ture, and industrial demands [2]. The quality and availability sin, salinization of groundwater is the major cause of the
of subsurface water have been impacted by increased an- decline of water quality impacting the sustainable use of
thropological activities associated with urbanization, indus- water resources. It limits the use of water for industrial,
Saadu Umar Wali,
Department of Geography, Federal University Birnin kebbi, P.M.B 1157. Kebbi State, Nigeria;
Email: saadu.umar@fubk.edu.ng

domestic, and agricultural uses [10]. The problem intensifies The basin is drained in the southwest and northeast by
in arid regions where the anthropological activities accel- the tributaries of the River Komadugu Yobe, comprising
erate the deterioration of groundwater quality by a range of mainly Rivers Kano, Gaya, Hadejia, Katagum, Jamaare,
issues which include: (a) subsurface movement of effluents and Gama. These rivers link up at a different point to
from irrigation fields; (b) upward flow of groundwater that form the drainage system of the Komadugu Yobe, flowing
has infiltrated the aquifer during irrigation; (c) seepage of towards the north-eastern summit of the triangular basin
[29-34]
highly effluent-rich surface flows concentrated in urban . Together with the eastern Chad basin of Nigeria, it
and/or municipal effluents during inundation event(s); (d) covers the southwestern part of the Lake Chad.
overexploitation of aquifer or recycling of wastewater; and The major town in the basin includes Kano, Hadejia,
irrigation return flows from irrigated fields [10]. Azare, Potiskum, and Katsina while Bauchi is just outside
In drylands, the salinization, and anthropological activ- the southern boundary. It is bounded to the north by the
ities are often followed by some natural processes such as Niger Republic. It is situated along with the latitude 10o N
the dissolution of soluble salts and rock-water interactions and has a very hot and dry climate (Figure 1). The annual
in the unsaturated zone which gradually salinizes ground- rainfall is comparatively low, and annual evaporation is
water. All these aforementioned factors necessitate con- also very high, reaching up to 1500mm. The scenery is
tinued analysis and monitoring of groundwater resources wide-ranging, extending from the rocky hills and insel-
in arid environments for improved water resources man- bergs of the basement complex rocks of the southwest, to
agement [10]. Consequently, several studies were conduct- less protuberant, low lying dull rolling dunes of sedimen-
ed to evaluate the physical and chemical composition of tary formations to the northeast, along Azare, Geidam,
groundwater in different parts of the world [9,11-23], results and Gumel. A line of massive granitic mountains, which
indicated that groundwater is influenced by both anthro- perhaps indicate the contact between the two formations
pological and lithological factors. marks the basement-sedimentary frontier.
Groundwater analysis in some parts of the Hadejia-Yobe
basin showed major variations are correlated to natural and
anthropogenic processes [24]. Evaluation of groundwater
chemistry using multivariate statistics by Garba, Ekanem
[25]
, inferred that the status of water quality in Hadejia is fit
for human consumption. Similarly, analysis of groundwa-
ter chemistry, dynamics, and storage in parts of Jigawa by
Hamidu, Falalu [26] revealed water of low hardness and dis-
solved salts that are within the WHO and Nigerian standard
for drinking water quality. Evaluation of fluoride distribu-
tion, geogenic origin, and concentration in groundwater Figure 1. Hadejia-Jamaare Floodplain [33]
in some parts of Yobe showed that the area had fluoride
concentrations slightly above WHO reference guidelines 2.2 Relief and Drainage
[27]
. Appraisal of toxicity and trace elements concentrations
in Yobe revealed anthropological inputs [28]. While there is In terms of drainage, the Hadejia-Yobe-River System con-
a significant reporting on the hydrochemistry of aquifers in trols the entire basin. The tributaries of this river system
the Hadejia-Yobe basin, there is a need for reviewing the rise from near western parts of the North-Central Plateau
extent of hydrogeological and hydrochemical analysis in (Kano, Katsina, and Jos plateau), with comparatively
the basin. This is attempted in this study. higher precipitation than the rest of the province. The De-
limi River, with its headwaters on the Jos Plateau and the
2. The Hadejia-Yobe Basin River lgi flowing from the Mingi Hills, the River Kano
from Liruwe Hills, and the Hadejia River from western
2.1 Location and Climate
Kano, all donates to Hadejia-Yobe-River System [31,33,34].
The Hadejia Yobe Basin (also known as Yobe-Jamaare The Hadejia-Yobe or Komadugu-Yobe, as it is sometimes
floodplain), is a trilateral basin, with its summit in described, collects water from entire tributaries before
north-eastern Nigeria as depicted by Figure 1 [29-33]. The flowing to the Lake Chad. Most of the tributaries of the
basin coincides roughly with the western Chad basin (un- Haqdejia-Yobe River System are mechanically measured.
confined aquifer) groundwater area. It is underlain by both The river flow from the area of high precipitation in the
the sedimentary formation and basement complex rocks. southwestern axis to lesser precipitation in the direction of

the lake chad. The intensity of rainfall displays a progres- sand and clay elements are still being added.
sive fall from the southwest to the northeast. The average Some of the detailed stratigraphies of the Chad Forma-
annual estimate of rainy days varies from around eighty tion indicated that the lithostratigraphy of Chad Formation
days in the southwest to less than the forty days near Lake encountered in Korowanga borehole, Dogara borehole
Chad. The temperatures are generally high and vary from and outcrop section at Abakire, represent numerous het-
20oC to 28oC from southwest to northeast. The river Hade- erolithic sandstone and claystone in varying proportions.
jia-Yobe is one of the most exploited and monitored river These sands range from silty, medium, and coarse-grained
system in Nigeria [30-32,35,36]. in size. In the Tuma well, for instance, the Chad Forma-
Many gauging stations are set along its sequence, from tion is characterized by light grey colossal claystone, mi-
its source area, in the southwest, to Gashua, near Lake nor sand particles, and some occasional pebbly horizons,
Chad, where the river empties its headwaters. The river and indicating some ferruginization in the deposits [43].
system is affluent, in the upland basement complex ar- Eight lithofacies components were defined based on their
eas. The river also influent in the Lower Hadejia-Gashua physiognomies such as structure, facies type, grain size,
sedimentary dispersal or wetland area, where the river boniness, sorting, color, and compaction [43]. The account
valley is exposed to seasonal run-offs and flooding. Con- of the faces components (summarized in three parts) is
sequently, losing a substantial volume of its flow to the shown in Figure 2.
riparian alluvial groundwater aquifers. Owing to the high
2.3.1 The Lithofacies Part 1-3
evaporation rates exceeding 90%, only about 10% or less
of this flow is accessible by the river as it squalls through Part 1 comprises greyish sandy claystone. These facies
its course of the lake. This flow is induced to recharge into component range from 50 to 70 meters and also is en-
the underlying aquifers of this part of the Chad basin [37- countered between 305 m and 345 meters below the sur-
40]
. Later, with the increase in evapotranspiration, down- face. It is highly rich in organic matter with insignificant
stream, and the losses into the underlying groundwater sand particles ranging between silt and minor pebbles.
aquifers, as the river feasts out and winds its sequence The lithofacies is also accompanied by lignite. The lower
towards the Lake Chad, the flow drops considerably. interlude has filthy claystone displaying roughening-up-
The river flow, between 1964 to 1965, along the Ha- ward sequences and sorting from clayey granite through
dejia - Yobe dropped from 5.6x10m in the upland area, to to sandy claystone, and weakly-sorted sandstone at the
0.63x10m in Yau, after flowing through the wetland areas, uppermost [43]. Part 2 is comprised of micaceous claystone
51.5 km to the lake. The situation is believed to have wors- which occurred only in the interval of 70-90 meters. The
ened. There is also a rise in the groundwater input to the carbonaceous clay is mainly related to mica flecks partic-
river flow downstream, 35% at Challawa, and over 50% ularly muscovite with negligible silt particles. The exis-
towards Wudil. Generally, the river system contributes very tence of muscovite proposes a felsic parent rock source
little to the water of the current Lake Chad, which added to and lengthy-distance transference. Its high content in or-
the drying of the lake. Most of its water is lost, seemingly in ganic matter signposts a lacustrine depositional scenery [43].
the wetland swamps and pools between Hadejia and Geid- Part 3 is comprising mainly of lithified claystone. The
am. The Hadejia-Yobe River System with its large alluvial lithofacies occurred at the interval of 90 to 195 meters, also
expanses is seasonal and only starts flowing around June to exist as reedy-bedded interpolated deposits at the interme-
July, after the onset of the rainy season. diate interlude of the entire unit. The claystone is sturdily
lithified and marginally ferruginized. It is comprised of
2.3 Geological setting slight mica flecks with no sign of biological opulence. Near
The geology of the Yobe-Hadejia basin is comprised of the lower part of this interlude, the claystone contrasts from
the basement complex and sedimentary formations [38,41,42]. bright to murky grey, signifying cumulative organic abun-
The Chad Formation is the newest in the Hadejia-Yobe dance and accumulation in a reducing condition [43].
Basin. A detailed stratigraphical description of the Chad 2.3.2 The Kerrikerri Formation
Formation is not common literature compared to the other
older formations in the basin. The sedimentology of the This geologic formation is characterized by horizon-
formation, which segregates the deposits into three mem- tal-laying to moderately plummeting basal conglomerate,
bers based on color and claystone/sandstone sections were grit, sandstone, siltstone, and clay which unconformably
described in detail by [43]. The sedimentation of the Chad rests above the Maastrichtian Fika Shale and Gombe
Formation has been an incessant process that began in the Sandstone [44,45]. Five stratigraphic units (including the
Late Miocene to the present, whereby river and aeolian type section at Kadi) and lithology were reviewed. The

formation attained a depth of about 200 meters at Duku high stand systems bands, and a sequence boundary. The
[44,45]
. The substantial mineral suite is comprised of rutile, base of the Gombe Sandstone was not encountered in the
zircon, kyanite, staurolite, limonite, tremolite, sillimanite, Fika area perhaps owing to lack of outcrops. The uncon-
pyroxene, hornblende, and tourmaline, which are sugges- formity between these two formations (Gombe Sandstone
tive of origin from the adjoining basement complex and and Kerri-Kerri Formation), shows a most important top-
previous alluvial rocks [44,45]. most series edge [46].
Based on previous investigations, the Gombe Formation
was dated as Late Maastrichtian in age, whereas the Ker-
ri-Kerri Formation age data is not available, nonetheless,
Palaeocene pollens were traced [46]. The formation of pro-
gression frontiers can be credited to tectonics. However,
there is some indication for Santonian-Campanian folding
simultaneously with the existence of a sharp unconformity
[46]
. The major stratigraphic sequence of the Kerrikerri For-
mation is presented in Figure 3. It is dominated by thick
limestone and sandstone which are Palaeocene in age. The
stratigraphic sequence occurred under erratic conditions
with each sediment correspond to one full cycle of trans-
gression and regression [47]. The Kerri-Kerri Formation
superimposed a slight area in the southeast, toward Azare.
The formation, containing a succession of grits sandstones
and clays, lies against the crystalline rock in this area. It
is usually not easy to differentiate the formation from the
younger superimposing Chad Formation, as both seem to
be in contact and present the same lithological physiogno-
Figure 2. Lithofacies type and depositional/precipitated mies. The formation is up to 200 meters thick in its core
palaeoenvironment of the Chad Formation [43]
area of existence in the upper Benue and thins out to the
The occasional basal deposits, well-sedimented silt- northwest near Azare in the Hadejia-Yobe basin.
stones and the occurrence of contraction fissures, clay-rein- Depositional
forced pebbles, local channel sandstones, and tinny vistas Meters Age Lithology Environment
0
of coal and carbonaceous clay propose a distinctive deltaic, 5
peripheral and deltaic lacustrine depositional environment. 10
The occurrence of the pollens Monocolpites marginatus 15
and Spinizonocolpites baculatus confirmed a Paleocene age 20
for the formation. The explanation of the superficial and

Continental
25
Paleocene
subsurface information is constant with an irregular graben 30
edifice of the Kerrikerri basin. The western boundary of the

35
basin was fault-controlled and active during the deposition

40
of sediments through the Early Tertiary [44]. Borehole data

45
50
showed that the intermittent nature of the Paleocene age 60
Kerri-Kerri Formation as an aquifer in Darazo [45]. 70
The series, parasequences, and their borders are be- 80

Explanation
lieved to have been formed in reaction to cycles of vir-

Limestone
90
Sandstone
tual fall and increase of sea level. Within strings, several
systems bands can be notable and developed all through
Figure 3. Stratigraphic section of Kerrikerri Formation [47]
an explicit component of a full cycle of virtual sea-level
transformation [46]. The source of this layered congrega- 2.3.3 The Gundumi Formation
tions was the consequence of the interface between the
The Gundumi Formation is characterized by the river and
ratios of variation of basin settling, residue contribution,
lacustrine deposits, which include moderately grainier
and eustasy [46]. The stratigraphic sequences recognized are
materials (Figure 4). The formation is also characterized
truncated stand system bands, transgressive system bands,
by intermittent lenses of quartz and feldspar pebble grav-

el, which are interbedded with the richer clay and clayey 3. The Sedimentary Aquifers
sand [48]. However, the formation contained a great deal
of melded clay. The sandy beds decline, and clay beds Hydrogeologically, the Chad Formation is a profound
upsurge with depth down to the contact with the pre-Cre- aquifer in the Hadejia-Yobe basin [26,61,62]. The aquifer
taceous basement rocks. Near the base of the Gundumi comprises of a series of clays, sandy clays, and silt, in
Formation, a conglomerate of smoothed quartz stones up which bands and lenses of silt and grit appear at several
0.0381 meters in diameter occurred in an outlier [48]. The spots. The coarse sand and gravel are well developed. In
sand and gravel beds are comprised of sharp to sub-an- this area, the Chad Formation superimposes the Kerrikerri
gular quartz particles, but several beds are abundant in Formation which lies on a more stable basement rock [37].
feldspathic and micaceous substance and rock fragments. The Chad Formation does not exceed 165 meters in thick-
Colors in the Gundumi varied widely. Brown, red, pink, ness and thins out erratically, nonetheless gently towards
yellow, white, and even purple are regular, and in some the southern and western borders where it seems to over-
clay layers, some of these colors may exist in spotted step the basement complex terrain [37,63]. At Gumel (Jigawa
forms. The sedimentary formations lie above the Precam- State), the sediment is reported to attain a thickness of
brian basement complex formation. The formation ranged 132 meters, 115 meters at Nguru (Yobe State), 132 meters
in age from Palaeozoic to Quaternary. It is assumed to be at Marguba, and 76 meters at Kunshe. In this province,
a tectonic cross point between the northeast and southwest groundwater is found an underwater table or sub artesian
trending the “Tibesti-Cameroun Trough” and a north- conditions depending on the existing hydrogeological
west-trending Aïr-Chad Trough”. It has been estimated condition (Figure 5).
that over 3600 m sediments have been deposited [49].
Figure 5. Lithologic section of boreholes penetrating

Chad Formation.
Borehole yields ranged from 3.3 to 5 lits/sec on aver-
age. However, transmissivity ranged from 6.87m2/day and
429.4m2/day, with a mean value of 65.7m2/day [37]. The
Figure 4. Stratigraphic section of Gundumi Formation
parting of the Chad Formation into the Upper, Middle,
The outcrops of the basement complex formation in the and Lower aquifers cannot be defined in this part of the
east, southeast, southwest, and the north of the basin are basin. Alternatively, it shows recurrences of clays, sand,
noticeable. The configuration below the sediments across and silts, the sandy layers intersecting the aquiferous
the lake was similar to the graben and horst zone [49]. The layers. The upper 20-30 meters of the grainy sands of the
hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of the basement com- Hadejia-Yobe basin, store a lot of water as bank storage,
plex section of Chad formation are characteristic of Nige- directly recharged from the river flows [37]. A lithological
ria’s basement complex terrain. There are some published unit along the river outline, based on available borehole
data on Nigeria’s basement complex [50-60]. Results indicat- records, displays a top 0-10 meters silty fine-grained
ed that the groundwater evolution hangs on reactivity and sands, underlain by a thick sequence of coarse sand and
pH. The hydrochemistry of aquifers is a direct signal of gravel, with two main interbedded clay/shale deposits.
the catchment geology [58]. Some of the borehole drilled in this area gave the follow-
ing lithological sections and output [37,64].

The sediments described illustrated in Figure 7 are char-

acteristic of the Gundumi Formation which lies directly on
the basement complex [37,48,61]. Groundwater in the region is
found underwater table conditions. The Coarse sand illus-
trated in Figure 7 formed good aquifers, but in the outskirt
where the sediment appears too thin to hold reasonable
quantities of water, mainly, around the basement inliers.
Previous studies revealed that 24 boreholes drilled in this
area have an average depth of 45 meters, with a depth
ranging from 20 to 85 meters. A maximum yield of 6.25
lits/sec and an average yield of 3.2 lits/sec, with only two
boreholes, abandoned. This range of yield is reasonable and
good enough for small rural water supply schemes [37]. The
Hydrogeology of Gundumi Formation is also described in
detail under the Sokoto Basin by Anderson and Ogilbee
[48]
. This geologic formation also underlies parts of Katsina
Figure 6. Lithologic section of boreholes penetrating and Daura areas to the north-western angle of the basin and
Chad Formation gave the lithology in Figure 7.
The borehole GSN BH 1172 was drilled at Ringin Rail-
3.1 The Basement Complex Terrain
way Station. No information on yields was available. The
second borehole in Figure 5 was also constructed at Ringin. The basement complex rocks underlay most of the south-
This well had yielded 5 lits/sec. The depth of the aquifer western section of the basin [49,61,68,69]. The groundwater
here ranged between 2.1-3.3 meters. The third borehole in condition is as discussed in Nigeria’s Basement Complex
Figure 5 was drilled at Ringin. The total depth of this well areas [58,70,71]. Published data of the water resources and
reached up to 106 meters below the surface [37]. No data on engineering construction agency, Kano, found that several
estimated yield. In a similar borehole in Hadejia (Figure 6), successful boreholes have been drilled in the basement
the borehole attained a total depth of 75.7 meters. There is no area of the basin. From the available lithological data [37],
information on borehole yields for this well. But in another a typical borehole section is illustrated in Figure 8. The
borehole in Nguru (Figure 6), an estimated yield of 3.8 lits/ borehole at Kano Trade Centre reached a depth between
sec was obtained. The aquifer depths at this location ranged 20.3 to 32.4 meters, which has yielded 106.0 lits/min and
between 21.2 to 36.4 meters. The total depth of this borehole a specific yield of 8.7 lits/min/m [37]. The second borehole
is 95.4 meters [37]. Generally, the lithology of these boreholes has no data on yield and specific yield.
which penetrates the Chad Formation is characterized by pre- However, a similar borehole at Gaya (Figure 8), has a
dominant layers of clay [41,65-67]. total depth of Total Depth 42.7 meters, Yielded 2.2 lits/
Sec and a Specific Yield of 9.2lits/min/m. The majority of
the boreholes seemed to be in valley lowland areas with
the substantial deepness of alluvium and deep weathering
of the underlying basement complex rocks. At Danbatta
about 45 km north of Kano approximately all drilled bore-
holes, passed roughly through 40 to 50 meters lateritic,
clay, coarse quartz sands and gravel, and bottoming in dis-
composed granite, as illustrated in Figure 4 [37]. The coarse
sands or gravel formed the major aquifers, and borehole
yields were abstemiously good. The Dambatta BH. No. 3
gave a discharge of 0.75 lits/sec. while Danbatta 1 and 2
and Dambatta Hospital 1 produced very high yields of 1.8,
6.3, and 9.1 liters/sec [37].
At Dawankin Kudu, some 25km south of Kano-Gaya
road, about 60km southeast of Kano, a similar yield of 4.5
Figure 7. Lithologic section of boreholes penetrating the liters/sec and 2.7 liters /sec were obtained from 30-50m of
Gundumi Formation the same kind of sediments lying on the basement complex.

These are quite a high yield and could have been derived ers is required to lessen the conflicts [72].
from alluvial beds, or deeply fractured zones of the hard
rock environment. Elsewhere, the yield is poorer, giving a 3.2 Groundwater Hydrochemistry
range of 0.6 to 1.3 liters/sec [37]. Out of seven boreholes,
3.2.1 Groundwater Classification Based on Physi-
only one, Kano BH No. 5, gave up to 2.5 bits/sec. This
cal Parameters
set of results relates more to the groundwater situation in
Basement Complex rocks regions of Nigeria [50-60]. The bor- Figure 9 presents a summary of synthesized data on phys-
derline between the basement complex terrain and the sedi- ical parameters from the Hadejia-Yobe basin. The pH
mentary area is not certain to separate the sedimentary layer concentrations varied from 4.7 to 9 with a mean value of
from the deeply weathered basement rock with which it has 6.8. Groundwater having a pH level varying between 6.5-
hydrologic interaction. The depth of weathering appears to 8.5 is considered suitable for drinking [73,74]. A synthesis
thicken near the basement/sedimentary frontier, forming of EC levels from 95 locations showed EC ranged from
about 20 meters around Wudil, to over 40 meters in the Da- 45 to 1891µS/cm With a mean value of 430.45 µS/cm.
bi-Dutse geological frontier [37]. The thickening towards the Similarly, the temperature ranged from 8 to 34.1oC with
sedimentary boundary implied a hydrologic joining with a mean value of 27.55 oC. Also, TDS ranged from 9.72 to
and recharge to the Chad aquifers. 1060 mg/l with a mean value of 216.39 mg/l. Total hard-
Meters
KANO TRADE CENTER No. 1 KANO TRADE CENTER No. 2 GAYA No. 2
ness is highly variable and ranged from 25.41 to 703 mg/l
with a mean value of 162.08 mg/l. Studies on DO, BOD,
0 Lateritic 0
Lateritic clay Clay

Lateritic
5 5
10
Granites gravel
Sandy clay
10 and COD are very few in Hadejia-Yobe Basin. Waziri and
Ogugbuaja, (2010)’s, interrelationships between physi-
Pebbles and
15 15
clay ?
Granite block
20
cochemical water pollution indicators showed that DO

20
Sandy clay
25 Clayey coarse 25
?
ranged from 5.87 to 7.38 mg/l with a mean value of 6.74

sand
30
30 Laterite
Clay
mg/l. The BOD varied between 2.43 to 3.34 mg/l with a

35 35
Decomposed Granite
Granite
40 40
45
Decomposed
Bottom of borehole 45 mean value of 2.72 mg/l. The COD ranged from 146.83 to
189.89 mg/l with a mean value of 165.70 mg/l.
granite 50
50
In a similar study by Waziri and Audu [75], showed av-

60 60
Bottom of borehole
70 Bottom of 70
borehole
80 80
erage DO concentration varied from 4.50, 4.32, 4.68, 4.72,
Figure 8. Lithologic section of boreholes in the Basement 5.02, and 5.22 mg/l during the dry season. Also, BOD var-
Complex Terrain ied from 3.20, 3.09, 3.16, 3.19 3.82, and 3.22 mg/l during
the dry season. Mean COD concentration varied between
An assessment of water resources potentials by Sobow-
170.0, 163.22, 163.83, 158.17, 157.90, and 176.17 mg/l
ale, Adewumi [34], revealed that about 2619 million m3 of
throughout the dry season. In contrast, mean DO concentra-
surface water are accessible yearly upstream of Wudil,
tion during wet season varied from 8.08, 9.47, 8.48, 7.35,
658 million m3 is obtainable between Wudil and Hadejia,
6.78, and 8.92 mg/l. The BOD varied between 2.52, 2.11,
while 905 million m3 is accessible between Gashua and
2.20, 2,27, 2.09 and 2.23 mg/l. The COD also varied be-
Hadejia. Examination of direct groundwater recharge
tween 178.83, 192.17, 191.83. 219.50, 214.13 and 156.33
discovered that 86 mm, 94 mm, and 8 mm of water are
mg/l. The significance of these parameters in drinking wa-
restored to groundwater yearly in the three hydrologi-
ter has been explained in detail in the literature [76-79].
cal units. The least groundwater renewal occurs in the
Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands. As at the time of this review,
no water stress was detected in the sub-catchment, the
prospective water balance of the area indicates that about
75% of the accessible water between Wudil and Hadejia
zone would be used up by 2010. Estimates show that the
water use rate will reach 100% by 2018. Thus, water scar-
city and conflicts would be faced in this sub-catchment if
critical steps are not undertaken to tackle the circumstanc-
es. Analysis of provisioning ecological services offered
by the Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands had indicated water short-
age and competition for water resources and conflicts [72].
Thus, designing a new management approach that defines Figure 9. Physical parameters (a) pH, (b) EC, tempera-
a resource use timetable particularly for herders and farm- ture, TDS, and hardness

Figure 10 presents the groundwater classification-based level below WHO as well as Nigerian reference values.
hardness, TDS, EC, and pH. Based on hardness, 39.19% Based on these revelations, more studies on Al, As and
fell in soft class, 29.73% fell in hard class, 13.51% fell in NH4 are recommended.
is hard/moderately class, and 17.57% fell in the very hard
class. Based on TDS, 91.59% is essential for drinking.
Further classification based on EC, revealed that 13.68%
fell in good class and 86.32% fell in permissible class.
Based on these physical parameters, groundwater in Ha-
dejia-Yobe Basin is suitable for drinking.
Figure 10. Groundwater classification (a) pH, (b) Total Figure 11. Hydrochemical parameters of water quality.
hardness, (c) TDS and (d) Conductivity Barium concentration from the neighboring Gombe
showed that Ba ranged between 0 to 0.54 mg/l with a
3.2.2 Chemical Characteristics mean value of 0.22 mg/l [92]. Based on this revelation, Ba
remained poorly known in the basin; mean Ba concen-
The evaluation of the hydrochemical composition
tration is within SON reference guideline value (0.7 mg/
of groundwater is central to understanding the range in
l). A major reason for limiting Ba in groundwater is its
which these elements fall [80-89]. When their concentration
connection with hypertension [93]. However, there was
is exceeding the recommended reference values, these ba-
a considerable number of reports on HCO3 (Figure 11).
sics may render groundwater injurious for human health.
HCO3 concentrations ranged from 6.0 to 126.0 mg/l with
Chemical parameters including Ca, Mg, Cu, Cd, B, Al, K,
a mean value of 23.79 mg/l [94]. Other studies reporting
PO4, SO4 As, and Cl, are mostly derived from rock miner-
HCO3 from the Hadejia-Yobe basin indicated that HCO3
al. Even so, elements like NH4 and SO4 are increasingly
ranged from 21.2 to 359 mg/l with a mean value of 53.05
derived from anthropogenic bases. Assessment of the der-
mg/l [95]. HCO3 ranged from 85 to 327 mg/l with a mean
ivation and absorption level of these chemical constituents
value of 194.05 mg/l [96]. Based on Nigeria’s standard, no
is required for effective groundwater monitoring. Studies
reference value was set for HCO3 in drinking water.
on Al, NH4, and As are common.
A synthesis of Ca concentration from 95 sites revealed
Quality assessment of hand-dug well in Song town
that it varied from 1.9 to 136 mg/l with a mean value of
(neighboring Adamawa State), revealed that NH4 varied
41.29 mg/l. Calcium concentration in drinking water tends
from 1.22 to 2.35 mg/l with a mean value of 1.90 mg/l [90].
to be beneficial to human health. However, aquifers that
This measurement cannot be used as a representative val-
have high Ca levels, are associated with hardness. The sig-
ue for NH4 in the basin, owing to the difficulty involved in
nificance of Ca in hydrochemical analysis relates to hard-
the delineation of boundaries of the Hadejia-Yobe basin.
ness. Calcium is found naturally in various environmental
There was no reporting of NH4 from Hadjia, Jigawa, and
settings and occurs widely in groundwater aquifers [97-99].
Damaturu zones, which constituted the core areas of this
It is an integral component of coral and is found in high
basin. However, the titrimetric determination of arsenic
concentrations (400mg/l) in brine. In lime regions, Ca at-
from Hadejia Emirate Council, Jigawa State, Nigeria, by
[91], tain 100 mg/l. Elementary calcium at normal temperature
revealed that ranged from 0.006 mg/l to 0.014 mg/l
can react with water, based reaction process indicated by
with a mean value of 0.011 mg/l; while that of irrigation
Eq. 1:
canals ranged from 0.006 mg/l to 0.010 mg/l with a mean
value of 0.009 mg/l. These results also show that all the
Ca( s ) + 2 H 2 O( g ) → Ca ( OH )2( aq ) + H 2( g ) (1)
analyzed water samples from irrigation canals have As

Dissolved calcium hydroxide forms soda and hydrogen water differ both in the interior aquifers and between
gas. It typically occurs when CO2 is freed, resulting in the distinct aquifers over numerous orders of enormity, dom-
development of carbonic acid, affecting Ca compounds. inated mainly by prevalent Eh (reducing conditions) and
The carbon weathering reaction and the total reaction are pH, which react to seasonal water table variations within
defined in equations 2 and 3, respectively. the aquifer. The environmental threats related to Mn in
groundwater are comparatively rare and may occur most
H 2 O + CO2 → H 2 CO3 and CaCO3 + H 2 CO3 → CaH (CO3 ) 2 significantly only when Mn-rich aquifers considerably
(2) sustain streams.
Sodium concentrations in some parts of the basin (Yola
area) ranged from 0.029 to 1.73 mg/l with a mean value
CaCO3( s ) + CO2( g ) + 2 H 2( l ) → Ca(2aq+ ) + 2 HCO3(− aq ) (3)
of 0.74 mg/l [96]. The potassium (K) concentrations ranged
from 4 to 12.1 mg/l with a mean value of 7.43 mg/l. The
Consequently, calcium hydrogen carbonate is pro-
Na and K concentrations remain poorly known. Therefore,
duced. Groundwater aquifers can be affected by changes
more measurements of Na and K are required for further
in temperature since Mg is a relatively low reducing el-
evaluation. Appraisal of some heavy metal concentrations
ement. Thus, rising oxygen can increase the reduction
in the water revealed that Cd concentration was highly
process. Additionally, Mg can react with water vapor to
variable [92]. Mean Cd concentration was 0.29 mg/l in
produce hydrogen gas or magnesium hydroxide as defined
borehole water, 0.01 mg/l in hand-dug well, and 0.45 mg/
in Eq. 4.
l in mine drain. Nigeria’s standard defined 0.003 mg/l as
Mg( s ) + 2 H 2 O( g ) → Mg ( OH )2( aq ) + H 2( g ) (4) the maximum permissible limits for Cd in drinking water.
A major reason for limiting Cd in drinking water is be-
Magnesium concentrations from 95 sites showed it cause of its toxicity to the kidney [93]. Studies on Cd from
ranged from 0.1 138.22 mg/l a mean value of 23.71 mg/ core areas within the basin (Hadejia, Jigawa, Yobe), were
l. Based on this revelation, the mean Mg concentration not accessed.
in this basin is above Nigeria’s reference value (0.2 mg/ Fluoride concentration was 1.42 mg/l in the deep
l). High Mg concentration in drinking water has not been groundwater, 1.02 mg/l in shallow groundwater, and 0.21
associated with any adverse health risk; high levels can mg/l in mine drain [92]. Assessment of the chemical and
affect the consumer acceptability [93]. Hamidu, Falalu [26]’s biological quality of deep groundwater revealed a range
analysis of storage, chemistry, and dynamics of ground- varying from 0 to 0.4 mg/l with a mean value of 0.18 mg/
water discovered no Mn concentration in groundwater. l [101]. Figure 11further presents a synthesis of lead in the
This result is doubtful because Mn is an inherently ap- Hadejia-Yobe basin. Cadmium concentration ranged from
pearing and copious element that is indispensable in nat- <0.001 to 164 mg/l with a mean value of 11.98 mg/l. The
ural systems. The chemical behavior of Mn is controlled NSDWQ [93] set 0.01 as the maximum permissible limits
by pH, reduction, and oxidation reactions. As a naturally of Pb in drinking water. A major reason for limiting Pb
occurring element, Mn is also omnipresent in the environ- in drinking water is its link with cancer and interfering
ment, and so is found in soils, sediments, surface water, with Vitamin D metabolic rate. It also disturbs mental
and groundwater. This result throws doubt on the entire growth in babies and is toxic to the central and peripheral
measurements reported by their study. Therefore, new in- nervous systems. A synthesis of Cl from 85 sites showed
vestigations are required for further evaluation. that Cl concentration ranged from 0.17 to 76.6 mg/l with a
Manganese (Mn) varied from 0.33 to 19.79 mg/l with mean value of 20.11mg/l. Mean Cl is below the NSDWQ
a mean value of 2.49. [100] Mn appears spontaneously in guideline value (250 mg/l). Figure 11 presents a summary
surface water and subsurface water, particularly in O 2 of NO3 concentration. Nitrate ranged from 0 to 41 mg/l
reduced or anaerobic environments. Mn concentration in with a mean value of 6.55 mg/l. Mean NO3 is within the
aquifers is controlled by several factors such as the chem- NSDWQ [93] reference guideline (50 mg/l). It is limited in
istry precipitation, lithology of the aquifer, geochemical drinking water because it causes cyanosis, and asphyxia
nature, groundwater movement paths, and dwelling time. (blue-baby syndrome) in infants under 3 months.
Most of these factors can be extremely unpredictable over
3.3 Summary and Research Knowledge gaps
comparatively small temporal and spatial scales. Mn can
be leaked from superimposing soils and mineral deposits The literature is unanimous about the significance of
in underlying rocks and from the crystals of the aquifer understanding the hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of
itself. Baseline varieties of Mn concentrations in ground- aquifers in a semi-arid Hadejia-Yobe basin. Based on the

analyzed literature reports, the following remarks can be processes on the evolution of groundwater chemistry
made: in a rapidly urbanized coastal area, South China. Sci
(1) The Chad Formation is the prolific aquifer in the Total Environ, 2013, 463-464: 209-21.
Hadejia-Yobe Basin, and it is characterized by high sandy [6] Qureshi, A.S., et al. Challenges and Prospects of Sus-
and clay formations. tainable Groundwater Management in the Indus Ba-
(2) The aquifer provides considerable amounts of sin, Pakistan. Water Resources Management, 2009,
groundwater. It had a considerable number of successful 24(8): 1551-1569.
boreholes even in the basement area of the basin. [7] Adimalla, N. Spatial distribution, exposure, and po-
(3) The Gundumi Formation which lies directly on the tential health risk assessment from nitrate in drinking
basement complex also provides groundwater under water water from semi-arid region of South India. Human
table conditions. Most of the boreholes drilled in the for- and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International
mation have a depth ranging from 20-85 meters. Journal, 2019, 26(2): 310-334.
(4) Based on physical and chemical composition, the [8] Kadam, A., et al. An implication of boron and fluo-
basin holds water of excellent quality; all the studied pa- ride contamination and its exposure risk in ground-
rameters were found to have concentrations within WHO water resources in semi-arid region, Western India.
and Nigerian standard for drinking water reference guide- Environment, Development and Sustainability, 2019:
lines. 1-24.
Although the physical and chemical composition of [9] Ahada, C.P.S., S. Suthar. Assessing groundwater hy-
groundwater is good, this basin is yet to be fully explored drochemistry of Malwa Punjab, India. Arabian Jour-
hydrochemically. As a result, more studies are required nal of Geosciences, 2018, 11(17): 1-15.
[10] Ahmed, M.A., S.G. Abdel Samie, H.A. Badawy,
for further evaluation. Reports on water quality index,
Factors controlling mechanisms of groundwater
heavy metal pollution index are lacking. Similarly, irriga-
salinization and hydrogeochemical processes in the
tion water quality assessment using water indices such as
Quaternary aquifer of the Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt.
sodium adsorption ratio, sodium percent, residual sodium
Environmental Earth Sciences, 2012, 68(2): 369-394.
carbonate, Kelly’s index, magnesium hazard, permeability
[11] Abo, R., B.J. Merkel. Water quality of the Helve-
index, and potential salinity are lacking as well. Besides,
tian and Eocene aquifers in Al Zerba catchment and
geochemical analysis employing geochemical modeling
southern parts of Al Qweek Valley, Aleppo basin,
and stable isotope techniques are required for understand-
Syria. Sustainable Water Resources Management,
ing the provenance of salinity in aquifers.
2015, 1(3): 189-211.
Acknowledgments [12] Adimalla, N., H. Qian. Groundwater quality evalu-
ation using water quality index (WQI) for drinking
This review was supported by Federal University Birnin purposes and human health risk (HHR) assessment
kebbi. Thanks to all anonymous contributors. in an agricultural region of Nanganur, south India.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2019, 176:
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ARTICLE
Mineral Chemistry and Nomenclature of Amphiboles of Garnet Bear-
ing Amphibolites From Thana Bhilwara, Rajasthan, India
H. Thomas*　Haritabh Rana
Department of Applied Geology, School of Engineering & Technology, Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, A Central
University, Sagar (M.P.), 470003, India
Article history Amphiboles are frequently observed in the medium to high grade met-
Received: 13 July 2020 amorphic rocks of garnet bearing amphibolites from Thana. In present
work, authors have discussed the mineral chemistry and nomenclature of
Accepted: 28 July 2020 amphiboles. On the basis of mineral chemistry, the amphibole from garnet
Published Online: 30 July 2020 bearing amphibolite are normally varies from Hastingsite, Ferropargasite to
Tschermakite variety.
Keywords:
Mineral chemistry
Garnet - Amphibolite
Nomenclature and Thana-Rajasthan
　
1. Introduction
T
he study area exposes rocks of the Banded Gneis-
sic Complex of the Proterozoic age [1,2], predomi-
nantly include basic granulites, pelitic granulites,
and amphibolites etc, and constitute the main litho units
of the gneissic complex (Figure 1) [1-12].
The Amphibolites occurs as isolated bands varying
in width from a few centimeters to 20 meter, and also as
lensoid bodies within the para-gneiss. At places the am-
phibolites are mixed with gneisses to form migmatite on
mesoscopic and megascopic scales. This mixed rock is
characterized by a conspicuous schistosity due to the pres- Figure 1. Geological map around Thana, Bhilwara, Rajas-
ence of equidimensional hornblende in varying amounts. than by author [1] , showing distribution of different litho units
H. Thomas,
Department of Applied Geology, School of Engineering & Technology, Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, A Central University, Sagar
(M.P.), 470003, India;
Email: harelthomas@yahoo.com

Several recent studies on amphibole chemistry have 5 X 50, operating at 15 kv with constant beam current and
been carried out [13-20]. The main aim of this paper is to pulse height selection. The counting time was 100 seconds
describe the mineral chemistry & nomenclature of these and 0.02 micro-ampere specimen current. ZAF and dead
amphiboles using the [21] and [22] classification. time corrections were applied with the computer pro-
grammed “FRAME”. The compositions of hornblende, is
2. Amphibole given in Table 1. The lower limit of detection ranges from
about 0.004 to 0.010%. The total iron from microprobe
Ca–amphibole is present in garnet bearing amphibolite.
analyses is reported as FeOT.
In amphibolites, the hornblende forms a replacement zone
The data of analyzed hornblende from garnet bearing
or overgrowth on clinopyroxene. This can be considered
amphibolite sample no. (H87/302 and H87/458) is shown
a late tectonic occurrence of hornblende and the possible
in Table 1. The structural formula was recalculated on
reaction is:
the basis of 23 oxygen basis. The structural formula cor-
5CaMgSi2O6+NaAlSi3O8 +H2O = NaCa2Mg5Si7A- responds closely to the generalized formula of the calci-
lO22(OH)2 +6SiO2 +3Ca um-rich amphiboles which can be expressed as:
A0-1B2C5T8O22(OH)2
3. Mineral Chemistry Where A= Na, K
B=Ca, Na, Mn
Quantitative chemical analysis of mineral phases have C= Mg, Fe+2, Fe+3, Al, Ti, Mn Cr, Li, Zn
been undertaken at the Mineralogisch Institute de Univer- T= Si, Al
[23-27]
sitait, Weirzberg by Professor R.S.Sharma using Camera
Table 1. EPMA analysis and nomenclatures of garnet bearing amphiboles from Thana Bhilwara Rajasthan
H87/ H87/ H87/ H87/ H87/ H87/ H87/ H87/ H87/
Sample No H87/458
458 458 458 458 458 458 458 302 302
1 Hb(Pt-6) in
2 Hb rim 2 Hb (small 1 (Hb/Pt 5)
Circle No 2 2 2 1 1 1 carona of Hb-
crystal) in carona
Plag
Point analysis Hb Pt-36 Hb Pt-37 Pt-38 Pt-39 Pt-40 Pt-45 Pt-46 Pt-47 Pt-5 Pt-6
SiO2 38.648 38.92 39.75 39.163 37.595 39.528 39.803 39.002 40.563 42.05
TiO2 1.673 1.669 1.736 1.849 1.83 1.629 1.758 1.705 0.434 0.538
Al2O3 11.742 11.716 11.621 12.203 11.62 12.206 11.49 11.891 14.345 12.816
Cr2O3 0.0057 0.04 - - 0.017 - - 0.04 0.023 0.012
MgO 6.6061 6.55 6.65 6.594 6.721 6.561 6.741 6.652 7.981 9.331
CaO 11.545 11.185 11.351 11.285 11.402 11.135 11.583 11.421 11.706 11.843
MnO 0.074 - 0.074 0.116 0.092 0.102 0.069 0.194 0.106 0.186
FeO 22.472 21.522 22.498 21.898 22.143 21.999 22.133 22.085 17.864 17.835
Na2O 1.435 1.385 1.382 1.424 1.47 1.525 1.431 1.449 1.01 1.129
K2O 2.267 2.1676 1.986 2.126 2.043 2.135 2.076 2.106 1.455 1.276
Cl- 0.807 0.839 0.647 0.686 0.723 0.682 0.601 0.764 0.189 0.02
H2O 1.671 1.649 1.735 1.718 1.66 1.724 1.748 1.69 1.886 1.965
Total 98.9458 97.6426 99.43 99.062 97.316 99.226 99.433 98.999 97.562 99.001
Cations based
23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen 23 Oxygen
on 23 O
Si 6.1841 6.2656 6.2765 6.2050 6.1130 6.2467 6.2793 6.2070 6.2877 6.3994
Ti 0.2011 0.2021 0.2061 0.2202 0.2237 0.1936 0.2085 0.204 0.0506 0.0616
Al 2.2124 2.2229 2.1626 2.2787 2.2268 2.2734 2.1364 2.2303 2.6208 2.2988
Cr 0.0007 0.0051 0 0 0.0022 0 0 0.005 0.0028 0.0014
Mg 1.5741 1.5717 1.565 1.5572 1.6289 1.5454 1.5851 1.5778 1.8441 2.1165
Fe 3.0043 2.8975 2.9709 2.9015 3.0111 2.9074 2.9201 2.9393 2.3158 2.2699
Mn 0.01 0 0.01 0.0155 0.0127 0.0136 0.0093 0.0262 0.0132 0.024

Ca 1.9773 1.9292 1.9202 1.9157 1.9863 1.8853 1.9579 1.9475 1.9442 1.9296
Na 0.4448 0.4324 0.4232 0.4374 0.4634 0.4671 0.4376 0.4471 0.3037 0.333
K 0.4623 0.4451 0.3999 0.4297 0.4237 0.4303 0.4178 0.4275 0.2877 0.2478
Total 16.0711 15.9716 15.9344 15.9609 16.0918 15.9628 15.952 16.0117 15.6706 15.682
+3
Avg of Min and Max Fe
Si 6.106881 6.206829 6.207922 6.14379 6.02135 6.190462 6.226066 6.134278 6.238876 6.336272
Al -IV 1.893119 1.793171 1.792078 1.85621 1.97865 1.809538 1.773934 1.865722 1.761124 1.663728
SUM T 8.000000 8.000000 8.000000 8.00000 8.00000 8.000000 8.000000 8.000000 8.000000 8.000000
Al-VI 0.291656 0.408878 0.346893 0.400011 0.214764 0.443395 0.344354 0.338448 0.839325 0.612395
Fe+3
0.423892 0.291386 0.403094 0.355121 0.541858 0.322894 0.306779 0.408197 0.485871 0.578181
Ti 0.198589 0.200204 0.203848 0.218028 0.220346 0.191857 0.206732 0.20161 0.050207 0.060992
Cr 0.000691 0.005052 0 0 0.002167 0 0 0.004941 0.002778 0.001386
Mg 1.554445 1.556957 1.547901 1.541839 1.604478 1.531487 1.571662 1.559314 1.82978 2.095621
Fe+2
2.525797 2.537522 2.493337 2.477356 2.410142 2.50366 2.565872 2.474578 1.785506 1.639582
Mn 0.004929 0 0.004928 0.007645 0.006245 0.006707 0.004601 0.012912 0.006532 0.011844
Sum C 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Mg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fe+2 0.017096 0.041414 0.042008 0.040401 0.013956 0.054672 0.022694 0.022088 0.02644 0.029746
Mn 0.004946 0 0.004963 0.007702 0.006265 0.00677 0.00462 0.012981 0.006565 0.01192
Ca 1.919922 1.867675 1.863173 1.855135 1.932464 1.823665 1.90328 1.888212 1.839958 1.84569
Na 0.058036 0.090911 0.089856 0.096762 0.047315 0.114893 0.069406 0.076719 0.127036 0.112644
Sum B 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Na 0.38121 0.337433 0.32872 0.336323 0.409137 0.348002 0.364484 0.365143 0.174306 0.217071
K 0.456527 0.440925 0.395531 0.425461 0.417348 0.426426 0.414258 0.422491 0.285466 0.245356
SUM A 0.837737 0.778358 0.724251 0.761784 0.826485 0.774428 0.778742 0.787634 0.459772 0.462427
Total 15.83774 15.77836 15.72425 15.76178 15.82648 15.77443 15.77874 15.78763 15.45977 15.46243
IMA Classifica- Ferroparg- Hasting- Ferroparg- Ferroparg- Ferroparg- Tscher- Tscher-
Hastingsite Hastingsite Hastingsite
tion asite site asite asite asite makite makite
The hydrous ion present in amphibole may be partially The edenite-ferroederite and tschermakite composition
or wholly replaced by F and Cl. In case of garnet bearing can be derived from tremolite-actinolite by the substi-
amphibolite (Sample No H87/458 and H87/302; Table 1), tution Si AlVI; Na and (Mg, Fe) Si AlIV, AlVI,
the SiO2 and Al2O3 content varies from 37.59 to 42.05% respectively. The combination of both these types of sub-
and from 11.49 to 14.34 respectively, FeOT, MgO and stitution results in the pargasite-hastingsite composition.
CaO content varies from 17.83 to 22.49%, from 6.55 to Hence, the analysed hornblendes are plotted on these
9.33% and from 11.13 to 11.84, respectively and the total four end member composition diagram (Figure 2 and 3a)
[23,24]
oxide ranges from 97.31 to 99.43. and the analyses of the hornblende are also expressed
by the relationship between AlIV and (Na + K) atoms per
3.1 Substitutions formula unit (Figure 3a) [28]. TiO2 varies from 0.434 to 1.84
The analyzed hornblendes show several substitu- wt%; Na2O varies from 1.01 to 1.53 wt% and K2O varies
tions in the Y and Z positions accompanied by the from 1.27 to 2.27 wt% (Table 1).
introduction of Na (K) into the X sites. Owing to the From the plot it is clear that the analysed hornblende
variable substitutions the hornblende composition can contains a considerable amount of pargasite and tscher-
be expressed in terms of four end members. Tremolite makite molecules, and the reaction between AlVI and Si of
- actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe+2)5Si8O22(OH)2; edenite - ferro- the hornblendes are shown in the Figure 3b, the diagram
ederite NaCa 2(Mg 5,Fe +2) 5AlSi 7O 22(OH) 2; tschermakite after ([28] Figure 1). The hornblende of the area show rela-
Ca2(Mg,Fe+2)3 Al2Si6,Al2O22(OH)2 and Pargasite - hasting- tively low AlVI and Si, and plot below the broken line of 5
site NaCa2(Mg2,Fe+2)4 AlSi6Al2O22(OH)2. Kb drawn by [28] (loc cit.) parallel to the line of maximum
AlVI after [26].

al variations in hornblende to the grade of metamor-

phism. [29]; [30]; [31] and [32] have suggested that Al/Si ratio
in hornblendes increase with increasing temperatures
of metamorphism. Increase in Ti content of hornblende
with increasing grade of metamorphism has been noted
by [3,28,30,33]. Increase in Na and decrease in amount of
Mn(OH) and also in the ratios Fe2O3/FeO and Fe/Mg with
increasing grade of metamorphism have been reported by
[34]
.
4. Nomenclature
Figure 2. The chemical variation of calcic amphiboles The amphibole group is a complex, compositionally di-
expressed as number of (Na+K) in A-sites and Si at- verse group among silicates, and exists in large varieties
oms per formula units. End member are Tr-Tremolite, of rock types and P-T ranges making it very useful P-T
Hb-Hornblende (Sensu strico), Ed- Edenite, Pa-Pargasite,
and petrogenetic indicator. In [22] the International Miner-
Ts-Tschermakite. The more densely stippled areas show
alogical Association (IMA) revised its [21] nomenclature
the more commonly occurring compositions [24]
scheme for amphiboles to accommodate all known am-
phibole species including several species discovered after
[21]
. The main difference between the [21] and [22] a scheme
is that amphiboles were divided into five groups in the [22]
scheme instead of four groups in the [21] scheme, on the
basis of B site occupancy, which is as follows:
Group 1 the sum of L type ions B (Mg, Fe, Mn, Li ) ≥
1.50 apfu, then the amphibole is member of the magne-
sium- iron-manganese-lithium group.
Group 2 B (Mg, Fe+2, Mn+2, Li) ≤0.50, B (Ca, Na) ≥ 1.00
and BNa<0.50 apfu, then the amphibole is a member of
calcic group.
Group 3 B (Mg, Fe+2, Mn+2, Li) ≤0.50, B (Ca, Na) ≥ 1.00
and 0.50≤ BNa<1.50 apfu, then the amphibole is a member
Figure 3a. Compositional variation diagram of Horn- of sodic-calcic group.
blende (after Raase, 1974) [28] Group 4 B (Mg, Fe+2, Mn+2, Li) ≤0.50, and BNa≥1.50
apfu, then the amphibole is a member of sodic group.
Group 5 0.50 < B (Mg, Fe+2, Mn+2, Li) <1.50 and 0.50≤
B
(Ca, Na) < 1.50 apfu, then the amphibole is a member
of sodium-calcium-magnesium-iron-manganese-lithium
group.
4.1 Cations Substitution

There are a number of substitutions for the mechanism of
amphiboles, which involve coupling of cations with dif-
ferent valence states to maintain charge balance [35].
Site/charge balance equation Substitution End member
Figure 3b. Plot representing the maximum possible AlVI [A]□ + [4]Si= [A]Na + [4]Al Edenite NaCa2Mg5Si7AlO22(OH)2
position in Si Vs AlVI ions of hornblende (after Raase, 2[4]Si + 2[6]Mg = 2[4]Na + 2[6]Fe+3 Iron Tschermakite
□Ca2(Mg3Fe2+3 )Si6A-
l2O22(OH)
1974)[28]
Aluminum Tscher- □Ca2(Mg3Al2)Si6A-
2[4]Si + 2[6]Mg = 2[4]Al + 2[6]Al
makite l2O22(OH)2
3.2 Compositional Variations 2[4]Si + [6]Mg = 2[4]Al + [6]Ti
Titanium Tscher-
makite
□Ca2(Mg4Ti) Si6A-
l2O22(OH)2
Several workers have attributed certain composition-

[A]□ + [6]Mg+2[4] Si = [A] Na+ [6]

Fe+3 +2[4]Al
Hastingsite
NaCa2(Fe4+2F+3) Si6A-
l2O22(OH)2
5. Discussion
[A]□ + Mg+2[4]Si = [A]Na + 2[6]Al
[6]
NaCa2(Mg4Al) Si6A-
+ 2Al
Pargasite
l2O22(OH)2 In present work mineral chemistry and nomenclature of
[A]□ + [M4]Ca= [A]Na + [M4]Na Richterite
Na(CaNa)Mg- amphiboles from Thana Bhilwara, Rajasthan, is based on
5Si8O22(OH)2
[M4] [6]
Ca + 2 Mg= 2 [M4]
Na + 2[6]
□Na2(Fe32+ Fe23+)
the nomenclature of the amphiboles given by [21] and [22],
Riebeckite
Fe3+ Si8O22(OH)2 where the chemical formula are calculated according to [38],
[M4] [6]
Ca + 2 Mg= 2 [M4] [6]
Na + 2 Al Glaucophane □Na2(Mg3Al2)Si8O22(OH)2 in which the estimation of Fe+3 requires the evaluation of
[A]□ indicates vacancy in the the all- ferrous iron anhydrous formula calculated on 23
A-site
oxygen atom basis. The stiochiometric limit for minimum
Note: Where [A]□ indicates vacancy in the A-site. Only the Edenite and
estimation of the proportion of Fe+3 is Si ≤ 8, ∑Ca ≤ 15 &
aluminum Tschermakite substitutions are linearly independent.
∑ K ≤ 16. Similarly for the maximum estimation of the
4.2 Calcic Amphiboles proportion of ferric iron is ∑ Al ≥ 8, ∑ Mn ≥ 13 & ∑ Na ≥
15 with the normalization factor all the cations are recal-
The calcic amphibole group is defined as monoclinic am- culated (Table 1).
phiboles in which (Ca + Na)B ³ 1.00, and NaB is between In the garnet bearing amphiboles (H87/458 &
0.50 and 1.50; usually, CaB ³ 1.50. The number of subdi- H87/302), the excess of CaO represent the calcic am-
visions used in IMA 78 has been more than halved; silicic phiboles mainly by Hastingsite and Ferropargasite. TiO2
edenite and compound names like Tschermakite horn- varies from 0.43-1.84 Wt% which indicates the increasing
blende have been abolished, Sadanagaite [36] and Cannil- grade of metamorphism.
loite [37] have been added, and the boundaries of the group
have been revised. The Classification of calcic amphibole Acknowledgments
[21,22]
, in fig 4 (a) Si in formula against Mg/ (Mg + Fe +2)
The authors should like to put on record their candid
of the garnet bearing amphiboles (Sample no H 87/458)
thanks to the Head, Department of Applied Geology, Doc-
occur in Hastingsite and Ferropargasite. In plot 4 (b) Si in
tor Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P.) and the
formula against Mg/(Mg + Fe+2) but few garnet bearing
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India
amphiboles (Sample no H87/302) occur in Tschermakite
for providing facilities as PURSE- Phase -II for conduct-
field.
ing present research work.
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Nokoso and Irituno districts in the central Abukuma 55: 3-18.

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ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Seismic edge detection algorithm unmasks blurred discontinuity in an

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046 1

1. Introduction and stratigraphic parameters. The practical relevance of

2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046

type and is divided into the continental, transitional and 2. Theory

While the inverse discrete Fourier transform is

(a) Tomboy Field, Niger Delta, cited in [9]

Figure 1. Tomboy Field, Niger Delta: (a) Bathymetric  F ( w) 

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046 3

4 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046

4. Results and Interpretation

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046 5

TABLES OF MODEL PARAMETERS

5775.5 Base 2232.41 63.75 325.56 2.25 123.86

7525.5 Base 2916.80 29.85 289.31 2.08 122.85

9292.5 D Base 3607.70 76.38 -32.58 2.21 103.50

5 9675.0 Top 3757.14 94.68 -20.81 2.26 102.84

Table 1.1: Computed Values of Some Well Parameters of Well 06 -0.5

5775.5 2.25 8073.63 2017.91 38984.87

7525.5 2.08 8140.00 4601.33 38369.61

9292.5 2.21 9661.83 497.18 43468.12

ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:20.0HZ

Figure 4. A Schematic diagram of the Channel Feature

ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:25.0HZ

6 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA(50HZ RICKER W AVELET)

(a): Amplitude and Phase Spectra (50Hz Ricker Wavelet)

ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:40.0HZ 0.08

(b) Amplitude and Phase Spectra (Sand-Reflectivity)

Centre Frequency of 40Hz 0.05

ZERO PHASE RICKER WAVELET,CENTER FREQUENCY:50.0HZ

Figure 7. Amplitude and Phase Spectra (Sand and Shale

CHANNEL SAND MODEL SIMULATED WITH 5OHz RICKER WAVELET

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046 7

MAGNITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA OF CHANNEL MODEL

Figure 9. Spectra and Cepstra of 50Hz Field Data-De-

MAGNITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRA OF CHANNEL MODEL

5 (b) 50-Trace, 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: Original

Figure 10. 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: An

(c) An abridged four (4)-trace Phase Attribute Section by Discrete

8 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046

CHANNEL SAND MODEL SIMULATED W ITH 5OHz RICKER W AVELET

Complex Cepstral transforms were used to highlight the

-3000 has application in the delimitation, delineation and char-

(a) 50 Hz Field Data-Derived Channel Model: Original Model Data

[1] Satinder, C., Marfurt, K. J., Misra, S. Seismic Attri-

butes on Frequency-Enhanced Seismic Data; Recov-

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046 9

10 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2046

Journal of Geological Research

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2066 11

12 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2066

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jgr.v2i2.2066 13

water samples could also result from high dilution effect

Figure 5. Seasonal concentrations of alkalinity

Figure 2. Seasonal levels of pH Total Hardness

1,000.00 20.00 LDS

Figure 6. Seasonal concentrations of Total Hardness