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Analysis
Theory 2-1
P and S-Waves
Theory 2-3
Mode Conversion of an Incident P-wave
If > 0°, an incident P-wave will produce both P and SV reflected and
transmitted waves.
waves This is called mode conversion.
conversion
Incident Reflected
P-wave SV-wave
Reflected
P-wave = RP
r
i r
VP1 , VS1 , 1
VP2 , VS2 , 2 t
t Transmitted
P-wave
Transmitted
SV-wave
Theory 2-4
Utilizing Mode Conversion
Theory 2-5
The Zoeppritz Equations
1
sin 1 cos 1 sin 2 cos 2
RP cos sin 1 cos 2 sin 2 sin 1
R 1 cos
S sin 2 VP1 2VS 2VP1
2
2VS 2VP1 1
cos 21 cos 2 cos 2
TP 1
VS1 1VS12VP 2
1
1VS12
2
sin 21
VS1 2VP 2 2VS 2
TS cos 21 sin 21 cos 22 sin 22 cos 2 1
VP1 1VP1 1VP1
Theory 2-6
The Aki-Richards Equation
The Aki-Richards equation is a linearized approximation to the Zoeppritz
equations.
equations The initial form (Richards and Frasier, 1976) separated the
velocity and density terms:
VP VS
R( ) a b c
VP VS
where:
1 2 1
a , , 2 1 ,
2 cos 2
2
V 2 VP 2 VP 1
VP , VP VP 2 VP 1 ,
b 0.5 2 sin ,
S 2
2
VP
VS 2 VS 1
2 VS , VS VS 2 VS 1 ,
VS 2
c 4 sin 2 ,
VP and i t .
2
Theory 2-7
Wiggins’ Version of the
Aki-Richards Equation
A more intuitive, but totally equivalent, form was derived by Wiggins.
Wiggins He
separated the equation into three reflection terms, each weaker than the
previous term:
where: 1 VP
A
2 V p
2 2
1 VP VS VS VS
B 4 2
2 Vp VP VS VP
1 VP
C
2 Vp
Theory 2-8
Aki-Richards Equation
Theory 2-9
Ostrander’s Paper
Ostrander (1984) was one of the first to write about AVO effects in
gas sands and proposed a simple two-layer model which encased a
low impedance, low Poisson’s ratio sand, between two higher
impedance, higher Poisson’s ratio shales.
Theory 2-10
Ostrander’s Model
the model consists of a low acoustic impedance and Poisson’s ratio gas
sand encased between two shales.
Theory 2-11
Synthetic from Ostrander’s Model
Theory 2-13
Wet and Gas Models
Let us now see how to get from the geology to the seismic. We will do
this by using the two models shown below. Model A consists of a wet
sand,
sand and Model B consists of a gas-saturated sand.
sand
Theory 2-14
AVO Models
In the next two slides, we are going to compute the top and base
event responses from Models A and B, using the following values,
where the Wet and Gas cases were computed using the Biot-
Gassmann equations:
equations
Wet: VP= 2500 m/s, VS= 1250 m/s, = 2.11 g/cc, = 0.33
Gas: VP= 2000 m/s, VS= 1310 m/s, = 1.95 g/cc, = 0.12
Shale: VP= 2250 m/s, VS= 1125 m/s, = 2.0 g/cc, = 0.33
We will consider the AVO effects with and without the third term in
the Aki-Richards equation.
Theory 2-15
AVO Wet Model
AVO - Wet Sand (Model A) Top AVO - Wet Sand (Model A) Base
0.100 0.000
0.080 -0.020
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.060 -0.040
0.040 -0.060
0.020 -0.080
0.000 -0.100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Angle (degrees) Angle (degrees)
R (All three terms) R (First two terms) R (All three terms) R (First two terms)
(a) (b)
The above figures show the AVO responses from the (a) top and (b)
base of the wet sand. Notice the decrease of amplitude, and also the
fact that the two-term approximation is only valid out to 30 degrees.
Theory 2-16
AVO Gas Model
AVO - Gas Sand (Model B) Top AVO - Gas Sand (Model B) Base
0.000 0.250
-0.050 0.200
Amplitude
Amplitude
-0.100 0.150
-0.150 0.100
-0.200 0.050
-0.250 0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Angle (degrees) Angle (degrees)
R (All three terms) R (First two terms) R (All three terms) R (First two terms)
(a) (b)
The above figures show the AVO responses from the (a) top and (b) base
of the gas sand. Notice the increase of amplitude, and again the fact that
the two-term approximation is only valid out to 30 degrees.
Theory 2-17
Shuey’s Equation
Shuey (1985) rewrote the Aki-Richards equation using VP, , and . Only
the gradient is different than in the Aki-Richards expression:
1 2
B A D 2( 1 D )
( 1 )2
1
VP / VP
where : D ,
VP / VP /
1
2
2
2 1
Theory 2-18
Gas Sand Model
Aki-Richards vs Shuey
Amplitude
0.000
-0.050
-0.100
-0.150
-0.200
-0.250
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Angle (degrees)
Theory 2-20
Four Single Layer Models
(c) , VP decrease, increases. (d) , VP, and all decrease. Theory 2-21
Multi-layer AVO Modeling
You must then decide what effects are to be included in the model:
primaries only, converted waves, multiples, or some combination of
these.
Theory 2-23
AVO Modeling Options
Theory 2-24
The Oil Sand Model
Simmons and Backus used the thin bed oil sand model shown above.
Theory 2-25
The Possible Modeled Events
+ multiples
Wave equation
Aki-Richards
Theory 2-27
Simmons and Backus (1994)
The Primary and Converted Waves
Theory 2-29
Models from a Real Data Example
(a) Full elastic wave. (b) Zoeppritz equation. (c) Aki-Richards equation.
Theory 2-30
Anisotropy and AVO
Theory 2-31
Isotropic versus Anisotropic (VTI) Velocity
VP(90o)
VP(45o)
VP(0o)
V 2
(0 o
) 2
VSV ( ) VSV (0 ) 1 2 o ( ) sin cos
o P 2
VSV (0 )
VP ( 90 o ) VP ( 0 o ) VSH ( 90 o ) VSH ( 0 o )
VP ( 0 o ) VSH ( 0 o )
VP ( 45 o ) VP ( 0 o ) VP ( 45 o ) VP ( 0 o )
4 o 4 o
V P ( 0 ) V P ( 0 )
In the next slide, we will look at VP and VSV as a function of angle for
different values of and . (As mentioned, VSH will not be used in AVO).
AVO
Theory 2-34
Group Angle versus Phase Angle
x
Ray Wavefront
Wavefront
Normal z
Anisotropic P and SV VTI velocities
225 m/s
VP(0o)= 2000 m/s
VP ( 90 o ) VP ( 0 o )
o
0 .3
VP ( 0 )
VP ( 45 o ) VP ( 0 o )
4 o 0.45 0.3 0.15
VP ( 0 )
Theory 2-37
AVO and Transverse Isotropy
Ran ( ) Ris ( ) sin
2
sin 2 tan 2 ,
2 2
where : 2 1
2 1
Theory 2-38
Typical Values for Delta, Epsilon and Gamma
Typical values for delta, epsilon, and gamma were given by Thomsen
(1986). Here are some representative values from his table:
Theory 2-39
AVO and Transverse Isotropy
Theory 2-40
Transverse Isotropy – AVO Effects
Class 1
Class 1 = -
0.15
= -0.3 Class 2
Class 2
Class 3
Class 3
Isotropic
--- Anisotropic
(a) Gas sandstone case: (b) Wet sandstone case:
Note that the effect of Note that the effect of and
and is to increase is to create apparent AVO
the AVO effects. decreases. Theory 2-41
Anisotropy Applied to Gas Sand
Example
Isotropic vs Anisotropic AVO
Gas Sand Top, = -0.15, = -0.3
0.000
Amplitude
-0.100
-0.200
-0.300
-0.400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Angle (degrees)
R (Isotropic) R (Anisotropic)
Theory 2-42
Anisotropic AVO Model Example
In the above display, we have added simple and logs to the sonic
and density logs from the Colony gas sandstone play in Alberta.
Notice that only the gas sand is isotropic.
Theory 2-43
Anisotropic AVO Synthetics
Our first modeled example looked at both a wet sand and a gas
sand, which were based on typical values found in a reservoir. As
we will see in the next section, this is the most common response
and is called a Class 3 anomaly.
Theory 2-46