AS Chemistry CIE

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YOUR NOTES
AS Chemistry CIE 
2. Inorganic Chemistry
CONTENTS
2.1 The Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity
2.1.1 Period 3 Elements: Physical Properties
2.1.2 Period 3 Elements: Structure & Bonding
2.1.3 Period 3 Oxides
2.1.4 Period 3 Oxides & Hydroxides: Acid/Base Behaviour
2.1.5 Period 3 Chlorides
2.1.6 Period 3 Elements: Electronegativity & Bonding
2.1.7 Period 3 Chlorides & Oxides
2.1.8 Chemical Periodicity of Other Elements
2.2 Group 2
2.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements
2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2 Oxides, Hydroxides & Carbonates
2.2.3 Thermal Decomposition of Nitrates & Carbonates
2.2.4 Group 2: Physical & Chemical Trends
2.2.5 Group 2: Trends in Solubility of Hydroxides & Sulfates
2.3 Group 17
2.3.1 Physical Properties of the Group 17 Elements
2.3.2 Chemical Properties: Halogens & Hydrogen Halides
2.3.3 Reactions of the Halide Ions
2.3.4 The Reactions of Chlorine
2.4 Nitrogen & Sulfur
2.4.1 Nitrogen and its Compounds
2.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides
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2.1 The Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity YOUR NOTES

2.1.1 Period 3 Elements: Physical Properties
Properties of the Elements in Period 3
Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number
and placed in vertical columns (groups) and horizontal rows (periods)
The elements across the periods show repeating patterns in chemical and
physical properties
This is called periodicity

All elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number from left to right
Atomic radius
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The atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron YOUR NOTES
of an atom 
The atomic radius is measured by taking two atoms of the same element,
measuring the distance between their nuclei and then halving this distance
In metals this is also called the metallic radius and in non-metals, the covalent
radius
The atomic radius gives a measure of the size of atoms
Atomic radii of Period 3 elements table
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YOUR NOTES
The graph shows a decrease in atomic radii of Period 3 elements across the period
Across the period, the atomic radii decrease

This is because the number of protons (the nuclear charge) and the number of
electrons increases by one every time you go an element to the right
The elements in a period all have the same number of shells (so the shielding
effect is the same)
This means that as you go across the period the nucleus attracts the electrons
more strongly pulling them closer to the nucleus
Because of this, the atomic radius (and thus the size of the atoms) decreases
across the period
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YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows that across Period 3, the elements gain extra electrons in the
same principal quantum shell
Ionic radius
The ionic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron of
an ion
Metals produce positively charged ions (cations) whereas nonmetals produce
negatively charged ions (anions)
The cations have lost their valence electrons which causes them to be much
smaller than their parent atoms
Because there are less electrons, this also means that there is less shielding of the
outer electrons
Going across the period from Na+ to Si4+ the ions get smaller due to the
increasing nuclear charge attracting the outer electrons in the second principal
quantum shell nucleus (which has an increasing atomic number)
The anions are larger than their original parent atoms because each atom has
gained one or more electrons in their third principal quantum shell
This increases the repulsion between electrons, while the nuclear charge is still
the same, causing the electron cloud to spread out
Going across P3- to Cl- the ionic radii decreases as the nuclear charge increases
across the period and fewer electrons are gained by the atoms (P gains 3 electrons,
S 2 electrons and Cl 1 electron)
Ionic radii of ions of Period 3 elements table
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YOUR NOTES
Ions of Period 3 elements with increasing positive charge (metals) and increasing of
outer electrons across the period
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YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows the electron configuration of the ions of Period 3 elements and
their relative sizes
Melting point
Melting points of the elements across Period 3 table
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YOUR NOTES
A general increase in melting point for the Period 3 elements up to silicon is

observed
Silicon has the highest melting point
After the Si element the melting points of the elements decreases significantly
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivityrefers to how well a substance can conduct electricity
Unlike the melting points, the electrical conductivity of the Period 3 elements
shows a clear trend
Going across the period, the electrical conductivity of the elements decreases
significantly
Trends in electrical conductivity across Period 3 table
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YOUR NOTES
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2.1.2 Period 3 Elements: Structure & Bonding YOUR NOTES

Period 3: Structure & Bonding
Melting point
Melting points of the elements across Period 3 table
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The above trends can be explained by looking at the bonding and structure of the YOUR NOTES
elements 
Bonding & structure of the elements table
The table shows that Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive ions
arranged in a giant lattice in which the ions are held together by a 'sea' of
delocalised electrons around them

Metal cations form a giant lattice held together by electrons that can freely move
around
The electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are those from the valence shell
of the atoms
Na will donate one electron into the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, Mg will donate
two and Al three electrons
As a result of this, the metallic bonding in Al is stronger than in Na
This is because the electrostatic forces between a 3+ ion and the larger number of
negatively charged delocalised electrons is much larger compared to a 1+ ion and
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the smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na YOUR NOTES
Because of this, the melting points increase going from Na to Al 

Si has the highest melting point due to its giant molecular structure in which each
Si atom is held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent bonds

P, S, Cland Ar are non-metallic elements and exist as simple molecules (P4, S8,
Cl2 and Ar as a single atom)
The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however, between the
molecules, there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
It doesn’t take much energy to break these intermolecular forces
Therefore, the melting points decrease going from P to Ar (note that the melting
point of S is higher than that of P as sulphur exists as larger S8 molecules
compared to the smaller P4 molecule)
Electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity decreases going across the Period 3 elements
Electrical conductivity decreases Period 3 elements table
Going from Na to Al, there is an increase in the number of valence electrons that
are donated to the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
Because of this, in Al there are more electrons available to move around through
the structure when it conducts electricity, making Al a better electrical conductor
than Na

Due to the giant molecular structure of Si, there are no delocalised electrons that
can freely move around within the structure
Si is therefore not a good electrical conductor and is classified as a semimetal
(metalloid)
The lack of delocalised electrons is also why P and S cannot conduct electricity
 Exam Tip
Intermolecular forces are forces between moleculesIntramolecular forces
are forces within a molecule
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2.1.3 Period 3 Oxides YOUR NOTES

Period 3: Oxides
Reactions with oxygen & chlorine
Reaction of Period 3 elements with oxygen table
Reaction of Period 3 elements with chlorine table
Reaction of sodium & magnesium with water

Sodium reacts vigorously with cold water:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
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The sodium melts into a ball and moves across the water surface until it YOUR NOTES
disappears 
Hydrogen gas is given off
The solution formed is strongly alkaline (pH 14) due to the sodium hydroxide
which is formed
The diagram shows the reaction of sodium with cold water
Magnesium reacts extremely slowly with cold water:

Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
The solution formed is weakly alkaline (pH 11) as the formed magnesium
hydroxide is only slightly soluble
When magnesium is heated, it reacts vigorously with steam (water) to make
magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas:
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
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Oxidation Number of the Period 3 Oxides YOUR NOTES
Oxygen is more electronegative than any of the Period 3 elements 
The Pauling scale shows the electronegativities of the elements in the periodic table.
Oxygen has a higher electronegativity than any of the Period 3 elements which is why
the Period 3 elements will have positive oxidation states and the oxygen a negative
oxidation state in the oxides of Period 3 elements
The Period 3 elements therefore have positive oxidation states in their oxides and
the oxygen has a negative oxidation state of -2

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YOUR NOTES
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YOUR NOTES
Oxidation states of the Period 3 elements in their oxides
Formulae of the oxides of the Period 3 elements & their oxidation states table
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Reaction of Period 3 Oxides & Water YOUR NOTES
Not all Period 3 oxides react with or are soluble in water 
Reaction of Period 3 oxides with water table
 Exam Tip
Since aluminium oxide does not react or dissolve in water, the oxide layer
protects the aluminium metal from corrosion.
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2.1.4 Period 3 Oxides & Hydroxides: Acid/Base Behaviour YOUR NOTES

Acid / Base Behaviour of Period 3 Oxides & Hydroxides
Period 3 oxides
Aluminium oxide is amphoteric which means that it can act both as a base (and
react with an acid such as HCl) and an acid (and react with a base such as NaOH)
Acidic & basic nature of the Period 3 oxides
Reactions of the Period 3 oxides with acid/base table
The acidic and basic nature of the Period 3 elements can be explained by looking
at their structure, bonding and the Period 3 elements’ electronegativity
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Structure, bonding & electronegativity of the Period 3 elements table YOUR NOTES
The difference in electronegativity between oxygen and Na, Mg and Al is the

largest
Electrons will therefore be transferred to oxygen when forming oxides giving the
oxide an ionic binding
The oxides of Si, P and S will share the electrons with the oxygen to form
covalently bonded oxides
The giant ionic and giant covalent structured oxides will have high melting points
as it is difficult to break the structures apart
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YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows the structure of some Period 3 oxides
The oxides of Na and Mg which show purely ionic bonding produce alkaline
solutions with water as their oxide ions (O2-) become hydroxide ions (OH-):
O 2-(aq) + H2O(l) → 2OH-(aq)
The oxides of P and S which show purely covalent bonding produce acidic
solutions with water because when these oxides react with water, they form an
acid which donates H+ ions to water
Eg. SO3 reacts with water as follows:
SO 3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO 4(aq)
The H2SO4 is an acid which will donate a H+ to water:

H2SO 4(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O + (aq) + HSO 4-(aq)
Al and Si are insoluble and when they react with hot, concentrated alkaline
solution they act as a base and form a salt
This behaviour is very typical of a covalently bonded oxide
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Al can also react with acidic solutions to form a salt and water YOUR NOTES
This behaviour is very typical of an ionic bonded metal oxide 

This behaviour of Al proves that the chemical bonding in aluminium oxide is not
purely ionic nor covalent: it is amphoteric
Period 3 hydroxide
NaOH is a strong base and will react with acids to form a salt and water:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2 is also a basic compound which is often used in indigestion remedies by

neutralising the excess acid in the stomach to relieve pain:
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and can acts both as an acid and base:

Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l)
Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) → NaAl(OH)4(aq)
 Exam Tip
Electronegativity is the power of an element to draw the electrons towards
itself in a covalent bond.For example, in Na2O the oxygen will draw the
electrons more strongly towards itself than sodium does.
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2.1.5 Period 3 Chlorides YOUR NOTES

Reaction of Period 3 Chlorides & Water
Chlorides of Period 3 elements show characteristic behaviour when added to water
which can be explained by looking at their chemical bonding and structure
Chemical bonding & structure of Period 3 chlorides table
Sodium & magnesium chloride

NaCl and MgCl2 do not react with water as the polar water molecules are attracted
to the ions dissolving the chlorides and breaking down the giant ionic structures:
the metal and chloride ions become hydrated ions
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YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows water molecules breaking down the giant ionic structure of NaCl
and MgCl2 to form hydrated ions
Aluminium chloride
Aluminium chloride exists in two forms:
AlCl3 as a giant lattice and with ionic bonds
Al2Cl6 as a dimer with covalent bonds

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YOUR NOTES
The two forms in which aluminium chloride exists

When water is added to aluminium chloride the dimers are broken down and Al3+
and Cl- ions enter the solution
The highly charged Al3+ ion becomes hydrated and causes a water molecule that is
bonded to the Al3+ to lose an H+ ion which turns the solution acidic
The H+ and the Cl- form hydrogen chloride gas which is given off as white fumes
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YOUR NOTES
The hydrated aluminium causes a water molecule to lose a H+ ion turning the
solution acidic
Silicon chloride
SiCl4 is hydrolysed in water, releasing white fumes of hydrogen chloride gas in a
rapid reaction
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO 2(s) + 4HCl(g)
The SiO2 is seen as a white precipitate and some of the hydrogen chloride gas
produced dissolves in water to form an acidic solution
Phosphorus(V) chloride
PCl5 also gets hydrolysed in water
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO 4(aq) + 5HCl(g)
Both H3PO4 and dissolved HCl are highly acidic
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2.1.6 Period 3 Elements: Electronegativity & Bonding YOUR NOTES

Period 3: Trends in Electronegativity & Bonding
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the power of an element to draw the electrons towards itself in
a covalent bond
Going across the period, the electronegativity of the elements increases
Electronegativity across Period 3 table
The diagram shows the trends in electronegativity of the Period 3 elements
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As the atomic number increases going across the period, there is an increase in YOUR NOTES
nuclear charge

Across the period, there is an increase in the number of valence shells however
the shielding is still the same as each extra electrons enters the same shell
As a result of this, electrons will be more strongly attracted to the nucleus causing
an increase in electronegativity across the period
Bonding & structure of Period 3 elements
The table shows that going from Al to S the bonding changes from metallic to
covalent and the structure changes from giant to simple structure
Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive ions arranged in a giant
lattice in which the ions are held together by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
around them
Since Al donates three electrons into the sea of delocalised electrons to form an
ion with +3 charge, the electrostatic forces between the electrons and the
aluminium ion will be very strong
of the atoms
negatively charged delocalised electrons are much larger compared to a 1+ ion
and the smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na
Since there are more electrons in a metallic lattice of aluminium compared to
sodium and magnesium, aluminium is a better electrical conductor
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YOUR NOTES
Metal cations form a giant lattice held together by electrons that can freely move
around
Si is a non-metallic element and has a giant molecular structure in which each Si

atom is held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent bonds
There are no delocalised electrons in the structure of Si which is why silicon
cannot conduct electricity and is classified as a metalloid

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The diagram shows the giant molecular structure of silicon where silicon atoms are YOUR NOTES
held together by strong covalent bonds


Phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine argon re both non-metallic elements that exist as
simple molecules (P4 , S8 , Cl2 and Ar as single atoms)
The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however, between the
molecules there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
The lack of delocalised electrons means that these compounds cannot conduct
electricity

The diagram shows the simple molecular structure of phosphorus with covalent
bonds between the atoms
The diagram shows the simple molecular structure of sulfur with covalent bonds
between the atoms
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2.1.7 Period 3 Chlorides & Oxides YOUR NOTES

Bonding in Period 3 Chlorides & Oxides
Period 3 chlorides
The bonding and structure of the Period 3 elements are summarised in the table
below:
The table shows that Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive ions
arranged in a giant lattice in which the ions are held together by a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons around them
of the atoms
negatively charged delocalised electrons is much larger compared to a 1+ ion and
the smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na
Because of this, the melting points increase going from Na to Al

Si has the highest melting point due to its giant molecular structure in which each
Si atom is held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent bonds
P, S, Cland Ar are non-metallic elements and exist as simple molecules (P4, S8,
Cl2 and Ar as single atom)
The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however between the
molecules there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
Therefore, the melting points decrease going from P to Ar (note that the melting
point of S is higher than that of P as sulphur exists as larger S8 molecules
compared to the smaller P4 molecule)
The presence of a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons also determines whether the
element is a good conductor or not
Going across the period the electrical conductivity of the elements decreases due
to lack of delocalised electrons

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The electronegativities of the Period 3 elements therefore determines the chemical YOUR NOTES
bonding and structure of their chlorides and oxides 
Going across Period 3, their chlorides and oxidised become more covalent and
their structure shifts from a giant ionic to a simple molecular structure
Their reactions with water become more vigorous as a result of this as it becomes
easier to hydrolyse the chlorides and oxides
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2.1.8 Chemical Periodicity of Other Elements YOUR NOTES

Periodicity: Predicting Position & Properties
If the chemical and physical properties of an element are known, the position of
that element in the Periodic Table can be predicted
Similarly, predictions can be made about the physical and chemical properties of
elements if the position of the element in the Periodic Table is known
The diagram shows a flowchart of how to use the position and/or properties of an
element to make predictions about its behaviour
Worked example: Deducing the position of an element in the Periodic

Table
Answer
Break the question down and systematically approach the question

Step 1: ‘Element X forms a chloride, which reacts with water to form a solution of
pH 1’
The low pH of the solution formed suggests that the chloride is a non-metallic
chloride (group 13 to 17)
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Step 2: ‘The oxide does not dissolve in or react with aqueous sodium hydroxide’ YOUR NOTES
Since aluminium oxide does reaction with sodium hydroxide, element G cannot be 
Group 13
Step 3:It forms an oxide which has a melting point of 1610 °C’
This suggests a giant molecular (covalent) structure which corresponds to Group
14
Step 4:Element X cannot be carbon (which is in Group 14) as carbon dioxide is a
gas whereas the element X oxide is a solid (with a melting point of 1610 °C)
Step 5: Element X is therefore a Group 14 element in Period 3 or lower
Note that this is an example of predicting the position of an element based on its
physical and chemical properties
Worked example: Predicting physical and chemical properties of selenium
Answer
Step 1: Selenium is a nonmetal in Group 16 and if compared to sulfur, its structure

is predicted to be a simple molecular structure
Step 2: Physical properties of simple molecular structures are low melting points,
do not conduct electricity and are insoluble in water
Step 3: Chemical properties are:

Reaction with water: simple molecules do not react with water
Reaction with oxygen: reacts with oxygen to form an oxide of SeO2 (if
compared with sulfur)
Reaction with chlorine: reacts with chlorine to form simple molecule of SeCl2
which can react with the water vapour in air to form hydrogen chloride (if
compared with sulfur)
Note that this is an example of predicting the chemical and physical properties of
an element based on its position in the Periodic Table
Worked example: Determining an unknown chloride compound
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YOUR NOTES
Answer
Answer 1:
Group 1 and 2 chlorides react with water to form colourless solutions of pH 6.5-7
Group 15 chlorides on the other hand react with water to form strong acidic
solutions
Element X therefore belongs to Group 15 of the Periodic Table
Answer 2:
Group 15 chlorides gets hydrolysed in water, therefore this is a hydrolysis reaction

Answer 3:
The white fumes that are given off during this reaction is hydrogen chloride gas
Page 35 of 83
2.2 Group 2 YOUR NOTES

2.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements
Reactions of Group 2 Elements
The Group 2 elements react with oxygen, water and dilute acids
Group 2 reactions table
Group 2 reactions with oxygen & water chemical equations
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YOUR NOTES
Group 2 reactions with dilute hydrochloric acid & dilute sulfuric acid chemical
equations
The reaction of all metals with oxygen follows the following general equation:
2M(s) + O 2(g) → 2MO(s)
Where M is any metal in Group 2

Remember than Sr and Ba also form MO2
The reaction of all metals with water follows the following general equation:
M(s) + 2H2O(l) → M(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
Except for, Be which does not react with water

The reaction of all metals with dilute HCl follows the following general equation:
M(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The reaction of all metals with dilute H2SO4 follows the following general equation:
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M(s) + H2SO 4(aq) → MSO 4(aq) + H2(g) YOUR NOTES
Remember that SrSO4 and BaSO4 are insoluble 
 Exam Tip
Learn the general equation for the reaction with oxygen, water and dilute
HCl/H2SO4 and the exceptions instead of memorizing the entire table!
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2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2 Oxides, Hydroxides & Carbonates YOUR NOTES

Reactions of Group 2 Oxides, Hydroxides & Carbonates
Reactions of Group 2 oxides with water
All Group 2 oxides are basic, except for BeO which is amphoteric (it can act both
as an acid and base)
Group 2 oxides react water to form alkaline solutions which get more alkaline
going down the group
Group 2 oxide reactions with water table
Remember that:
oxide + water → hydroxide
And that calcium hydroxide is also called limewater

Reactions of Group 2 metals with acid
The Group 2 metals will react with dilute acids to form colourless solutions of
metal salts
For example, they will form colourless solutions of metal chlorides if reacted
with hydrochloric acid
When metals react with an acid, the by-product of this reaction is hydrogen gas
Group 2 metal element reactions with dilute acids table
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YOUR NOTES
When some of Group 2 metals react with sulfuric acid rather than hydrochloric, an
insoluble sulfate forms
Going down the group, the Group 2 sulfates become less and less soluble
Calcium sulfate is sparingly soluble, but strontium sulfate and barium sulfate
are insoluble
Reactions of Group 2 oxides with acid
Group 2 sulfates also form when a Group 2 oxide is reacted with an acid
The insoluble sulfates form at the surface of the oxide, which means that the
solid oxide beneath it can’t react with the acid
This can be prevented to an extent by using the oxide in powder form and
stirring , in which case neutralisation can take place
Remember that:
oxide + dilute hydrochloric acid → salt + water
oxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water
Reactions of group 2 hydroxides

The Group 2 metal hydroxides form colourless solutions of metal chlorides when
they react with a dilute acid
The sulfates decrease in solubility going down the group (barium sulfate is an
insoluble white precipitate)
Group 2 hydroxide reactions with dilute acids table
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YOUR NOTES
Remember that:
hydroxide + dilute acid → salt + water
hydroxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water
Reactions of group 2 carbonates

All Group 2 carbonates (except for BeCO3) are insoluble in water
All Group 2 carbonates will form soluble chloride salts, water and carbon dioxide
gas when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid
The carbonates of Ca, Sr and Ba form as an insoluble sulfate layer on their solid
carbonates which stops any further reaction after the initial bubbling
(effervescence) of carbon dioxide gas is seen
Group 2 carbonate reactions with dilute acids
Remember that:
carbonate + dilute hydrochloric acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide
carbonate + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
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2.2.3 Thermal Decomposition of Nitrates & Carbonates YOUR NOTES

Group 2: Thermal Decomposition of Nitrates & Carbonates
Thermal decomposition is the breakdown of a compound into two or more different
substances using heat
The Group 2 carbonates break down (decompose) when they are heated to form
the metal oxide and give off carbon dioxide gas
The general equation for the decomposition of Group 2 carbonates is:
HEAT
XCO 3 (s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ XO (s) + CO 2 (g)
X = Group 2 element
Going down the group, more heat is needed to break down the carbonates

HEAT
MgCO 3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ MgO + CO 2
Thermal decomposition of nitrates

The only Group 1 nitrate that will decompose to produce nitrogen dioxide (which is
a brown toxic gas) and oxygen is lithium nitrate LiNO3
HEAT
4LiNO 3 (s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2Li2O (s) + 4NO 2 (g) + O 2 (g)
The rest of the Group don't decompose so completely producing the

metal nitrite (NO2-) and oxygen, but no nitrogen dioxide
HEAT
2XNO 3 (s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2XNO 2 (s) + O 2 (g)
Going down Group 2, more heat is needed to break down the carbonate and

nitrate ions
The thermal stability of the Group 2 carbonates and nitrates therefore
increases down the group
The smaller positive ions at the top of the groups will polarise the anions
more than the larger ions at the bottom of the group
The small positive ion attracts the delocalised electrons in the carbonate
ion towards itself
The higher the charge and the smaller the ion the higher the polarising
power
The more polarised they are, the more likely they are to thermally decompose
as the bonds in the carbonate and nitrate ions become weaker
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2.2.4 Group 2: Physical & Chemical Trends YOUR NOTES

Group 2: Physical & Chemical Trends
Chemical trends
All elements in Group 2 (also called alkali earth metals) have the two electrons in
their outermost principal quantum shell
All Group 2 metals can form ionic compounds in which they donate these two
outermost electrons (so they act as reducing agents) to become an ion with +2
charge (so they themselves become oxidised)
Going down the group, the metals become more reactive
This can be explained by looking at the Group 2 ionisation energies:
The graph shows that both the first and second ionization energies decrease going
down the table
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The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove the first outer electron YOUR NOTES
of an atom 
The second ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove the second outer
electron of an atom
The graph above shows that going down the group, it becomes easier to remove
the outer two electrons of the metals
Though the nuclear charge on the nucleus increases going down the group
(because there are more protons), factors such as an increased shielding effect
and a larger distance between the outermost electrons and nucleus outweigh the
attraction of the higher nuclear charge
As a result of this, the elements become more reactive going down the group as it
gets easier for the atoms to lose two electrons and become 2+ ions
This trend is shown by looking at reactions of the Group 2 metals:
With dilute hydrochloric acid: bubbles of hydrogen gas are given off much
faster indicating that the reactions become more vigorous
With oxygen hydrochloric acid: the metals get more reactive with oxygen down
the group (Ba is so reactive, that it must be stored in oil to prevent it from
reacting with oxygen in air)
Physical trends
Going down the group, the elements become larger as the outer two electrons
occupy a new principal quantum shell which is further away from the nucleus

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The atomic radius of the Group 2 elements increases going down the group due to YOUR NOTES
the addition of an extra principal quantum shell


The graph shows a increase in atomic radius going down the group
The melting point of the elements decreases going down the group as the outer
electrons get further away from the nucleus
This means that the attraction between the nucleus and the bonding electrons
decreases causing a decrease in melting point
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YOUR NOTES
The graph shows a decrease in melting point going down the group
As you go down the group, the density of the alkali earth metals increases

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YOUR NOTES
The graph shows an increase in density going down the group
Worked example: Predicting properties of radium
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YOUR NOTES
Answer
Property 1:
Since, Ra is in Group 2, it will form an ion with +2 charge to give Ra2+

Property 2:
The Group 2 oxides and hydroxides have general formula XO and X(OH)2 respectively
where X is the Group 2 element.
Therefore, radium oxide is RaO and radium hydroxide is Ra(OH)2
Property 3:
Radium is below barium so its atomic radius is larger than the atomic radius of barium.
This means that radium’s outermost electrons are even further away and are therefore
even more easily removed than barium’s outermost electron pair.
The first ionization energy is between 450-480 kJ mol-1
Property 4:
Radium’s outermost electrons are even further away than in barium and are therefore
more easily removed making radium more reactive than barium.
Property 5:
The Group 2 hydroxides become more soluble going down the group.
Radium hydroxide will therefore be more soluble than calcium hydroxide.
Property 6:
Page 48 of 83
The Group 2 sulfates become less soluble going down the group. YOUR NOTES
Radium sulfate will therefore be less soluble than strontium sulfate. 

Property 7:
The general equation for the reaction of Group 2 oxides with dilute hydrochloric acid
is:
XO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → XCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
where X is the Group 2 element

The reaction of radium oxide with dilute hydrochloric acid is therefore:
RaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → RaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Property 8:
Radium sulfate will be formed in this reaction, however the solubility of Group 2
sulfates decreases going down the group, therefore a white precipitate of radium
sulfate will be formed in this reaction
Page 49 of 83
2.2.5 Group 2: Trends in Solubility of Hydroxides & Sulfates YOUR NOTES

Trends in Solubility in Group 2 Hydroxides & Sulfates
Group 2 hydroxides
Going down the group, the solutions formed from the reaction of Group 2 oxides
with water become more alkaline
When the oxides are dissolved in water, the following ionic reaction takes place:
O 2- (aq) + H2O(l) → 2OH- (aq)
The higher the concentration of OH- ions formed, the more alkaline the solution
The alkalinity of the formed solution can therefore be explained by the solubility
of the Group 2 hydroxides
Solubility of the Group 2 hydroxides table
The hydroxides dissolve in water as follows:

X(OH)2 (aq) → X(aq) + 2OH- (aq)
Where X is the Group 2 element

When the metal oxides react with water, a Group 2 hydroxide is formed
Going down the group, the solubility of these hydroxides increases
This means that the concentration of OH- ions increases, increasing the pH of the
solution
As a result, going down the group, the alkalinity of the solution formed increases
when Group 2 oxides react with water
Page 50 of 83
YOUR NOTES
Going down the group, the solubility of the hydroxides increases which means that
the solutions formed from the reactions of the Group 2 metal oxides and water
become more alkaline going down the group
Group 2 sulfates
The solubility of the Group 2 sulfates decreasing going down the group

Going down the group, the solubility of the sulfates decreases
Page 51 of 83
2.3 Group 17 YOUR NOTES

2.3.1 Physical Properties of the Group 17 Elements
Group 17: Physical Trends
The group 17 elements are called halogens
The halogens have uses in water purification and as bleaches agents (chlorine), as
flame-retardants and fire extinguishers (bromine) and as antiseptic and
disinfectant agents (iodine)
Colours
All halogens have distinct colours which get darker going down the group

The colours of the Group 17 elements get darker going down the group
Volatility
Volatilityrefers to how easily a substance can evaporate
A volatile substance will have a low melting and boiling point

Page 52 of 83
YOUR NOTES
The melting & boiling points of the Group 17 elements increase going down the
group which indicates that the elements become less volatile
Going down the group, the boiling point of the elements increases which means
that the volatility of the halogens decreases
This means that fluorine is the most volatile and iodine the least volatile
Page 53 of 83
Group 17: Trends in Bond Strength YOUR NOTES
Halogens are diatomic molecules in which covalent bonds are formed by 

overlapping their orbitals
In a covalent bond, the bonding pair of electrons is attracted to the nuclei on
either side and it is this attraction that holds the molecule together
Going down the group, the atomic size of the halogens increases
The bonding pair of electrons get further away from the halogen nucleus and are
therefore less strongly attracted towards in
A covalent bond is formed by the orbital overlap of two atoms and the attraction of
electrons towards the nuclei; The bigger the atom, the weaker the covalent bond

The bond strength of the halogen molecules therefore decreases going down the
group
Page 54 of 83
YOUR NOTES
The bond enthalpies decrease indicating that the bond strengths decrease going
down the group
Bond enthalpy is the heat needed to break one mole of a covalent bond
The higher the bond enthalpy, the stronger the bond
An exception to this is fluorine which has a smaller bond enthalpy than chlorine
and bromine
Fluorine is so small that when two atoms of fluorine get together their lone pairs
get so close that they cause significant repulsion counteracting the attracting
between the bonding pair of electrons and two nuclei

Page 55 of 83
The lone pairs on fluorine get so close to each other in a fluorine molecule that they YOUR NOTES
cause repulsion which decreases the bond strength


Page 56 of 83
Group 17: Dipole Forces & Volatility YOUR NOTES
Halogens are non-metals and are diatomic molecules at room temperature 

This means that they exist as molecules which are made up of two similar
atoms, such as F2
The halogens are simple molecular structures with weak van der Waals’ forces
between the diatomic molecules caused by instantaneous dipole-induced dipole
forces

The diagram shows that a sudden distribution of electrons in a nonpolar molecule

can cause an instantaneous dipole. When this molecule gets close to another non-
polar molecule it can induce a dipole as the cloud of electrons repel the electrons in
the neighbouring molecule to the other side
The more electrons there are in a molecule, the greater the instantaneous dipole-
induced dipole forces
Therefore, the larger the molecule the stronger the van der Waals’ forces between
molecules
This is why as you go down the group, it gets more difficult to separate the
molecules and the melting and boiling points increase
As it gets more difficult to separate the molecules, the volatility of the halogens
decreases going down the group
Page 57 of 83
YOUR NOTES
Going down the group, the van der Waals’ forces increase due to an increased number
of electrons in the molecules which means that the volatility decreases
 Exam Tip
Instantaneous induced – induced dipole forces are a type of van der Waals’
forces.
Page 58 of 83
2.3.2 Chemical Properties: Halogens & Hydrogen Halides YOUR NOTES

Group 17: Oxidising Agents
Halogens react with metals by accepting an electron from the metal atom to
become an ion with 1- charge
Eg. Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → Ca2+(Cl-)2(s)
Halogens are therefore oxidising agents:

Halogens oxidise the metal by removing an electron from the metal (the
oxidation number of the metal increases)
Halogens become reduced as they gain an extra electron from the metal atom
(the oxidation number of the halogen decreases)
The oxidising power of the halogens decreases going down the group (the
halogens get less reactive)
This can be explained by looking at their electronegativities:
The electronegativity of the halogens decreases going down the group
The electronegativity of an atom refers to how strongly it attracts electrons

towards itself in a covalent bond
The decrease in electronegativity is linked to the size of the halogens
Going down the group, the atomic radii of the elements increase which means that
the outer shells get further away from the nucleus
An ‘incoming’ electron will therefore experience more shielding from the
attraction of the positive nuclear charge
Page 59 of 83
The halogens’ ability to accept an electron (their oxidising power) therefore YOUR NOTES
decreases going down the group 

With increasing atomic size of the halogens (going down the group) their
electronegativity, and therefore oxidising power, decreases
The reactivity of halogens is also shown by their displacement reactions with

other halide ions in solutions
A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from a halide
solution of the less reactive halogen
Eg. The addition of chlorine water to a solution of bromine water:
Cl2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
The chlorine has displaced the bromine from solution as it is more reactive
which can be summarised in the following ionic equation:
Cl2(aq) + 2Br-(aq) → 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
Page 60 of 83
Group 17: Reaction with Hydrogen YOUR NOTES
Halogens react with hydrogen gas to form hydrogen halides 

Due to the decrease in reactivity of the halogens going down the group, the
reactions between halogen and hydrogen gas become less vigorous
The table below shows a summary of the reaction between halogen and hydrogen
gas
Reaction between halogen & hydrogen gas
Page 61 of 83
Thermal Stability of the Hydrogen Halides YOUR NOTES
Thermal stability refers to how well a substance can resist breaking down when 
heated
A substance that is thermally stable will break down at high temperatures
The hydrogen halides formed from the reaction of halogen and hydrogen gas
decrease in thermal stability going down the group
The decrease in thermal stability can be explained by looking at the bond energies
of the hydrogen-halogen bond
Going down the group, the atomic radius of the halogens increases
The overlap of its outer shell with a hydrogen atom therefore gives a longer
bond length
The longer the bond, the weaker it is, and the less energy required to break it
As the bonds get weaker, the hydrogen halogens become less stable to heat going
down the group
The thermal stability of the hydrogen halide decreases going down the group as their
bonds become weaker due to the increased atomic radius of the halogens
Page 62 of 83
2.3.3 Reactions of the Halide Ions YOUR NOTES

Halide Ions: Reducing Agents
Halide ions can also act as reducing agents and donate electrons to another atom
The halide ions themselves get oxidised and lose electrons
The reducing power of the halide ions increases going down the group
This trend can be explained by looking at the ionic radii of the halides’ ions

The diagram shows that going down the group the ionic radii of the halogens
increases
Going down the group, the halide ions become larger

The outermost electrons get further away from the nucleus
The outermost electrons also experience more shielding by inner electrons
As a result of this, the outermost electrons are held less tightly to the positively
charged nucleus
Therefore, the halide ions lose electrons more easily going down the group and
their reducing power increases

Page 63 of 83
YOUR NOTES
The reducing power of the halide ions increases going down the group
 Exam Tip
The ionic radius is a measure of the size of an atom’s ion.
Page 64 of 83
Reactions of Halide Ions YOUR NOTES
Silver ions & ammonia 

Halide ions can be identified in an unknown solution by dissolving the solution in
nitric acid and then adding a silver nitrate solution followed by ammonia solution
The halide ions will react with the silver nitrate solution as follows:
AgNO 3(aq) + X-(aq) → AgX(s) + NO 3-(aq)
(general equation)
Ag +(aq) + X-(aq) → AgX(s)
(ionic equation)
X- is the halide ion in both equations
If the unknown solution contains halide ions, then a precipitate of the silver
halide will be formed (AgX)
A silver halide precipitate is formed upon addition of silver nitrate solution to halide
ion solution
Dilute followed by concentrated ammonia is added to the silver halide solution to

identify the halide ion
If the precipitate dissolves in dilute ammonia the unknown halide is chloride
If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute but in concentrated ammonia the
unknown halide is bromide
If the precipitate does not dissolve in dilute nor concentrated ammonia the
unknown halide is iodide
Page 65 of 83
YOUR NOTES
Silver chloride and silver bromide precipitates dissolve on addition of ammonia

solution whereas silver iodide doesn’t
Reaction of halide ions with silver nitrate & ammonia solutions table
Page 66 of 83
YOUR NOTES
Concentrated sulfuric acid

Chloride, bromide and iodide ions react with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce
toxic gases
These reactions should therefore be carried out in a fume cupboard
The general reaction of the halide ions with concentrated sulfuric acid is:
H2SO 4(l) + X-(aq) → HX(g) + HSO 4-(aq)
(general equation)
Where X- is the halide ion
Reaction of chloride ions with concentrated sulfuric Acid
Concentrated sulfuric acid is dropwise added to sodium chloride crystals to
produce hydrogen chloride gas
Page 67 of 83
YOUR NOTES
Apparatus set up for the reaction of sodium chloride with concentrated sulfuric acid

The reaction that takes place is:
H2SO 4(l) + NaCl(s) → HCl(g) + NaHSO 4(s)
The HCl gas produces is seen as white fumes

Reaction of bromide ions with concentrated sulfuric acid
The thermal stability of the hydrogen halides decreases down the group
The reaction of sodium bromide and concentrated sulfuric acid is:
H2SO 4(l) + NaBr(s) → HBr(g) + NaHSO 4(s)
The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HBr which decomposes into bromine and
hydrogen gas and sulfuric acid itself is reduced to sulfur dioxide gas:
2HBr(g) + H2SO 4(l) → Br2(g) + SO 2(g) + 2H2O(l)
The bromine is seen as a reddish-brown gas

Reaction of iodide ions with concentrated sulfuric acid
The reaction of sodium iodide and concentrated sulfuric acid is:
H2SO 4 (l) + NaI (s) → HI (g) + NaHSO 4 (s)
Page 68 of 83
Hydrogen iodide decomposes the easiest YOUR NOTES
Sulfuric acid oxidises the hydrogen iodide to several extents: 

The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HI and is itself reduced to sulfur dioxide
gas:
2HI (g) + H2SO 4 (l) → I2 (g) + SO 2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Iodine is seen as a violet/purple vapour

The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HI and is itself reduced to sulfur:
6HI (g) + H2SO 4 (l) → 3I2 (g) + S (s) + 4H2O (l)
Sulfur is seen as a yellow solid

The concentrated sulfuric acid oxidises HI and is itself reduced to hydrogen
sulfide:
8HI (g) + H2SO 4 (l) → 4I2 (g) + H2S (s) + 4H2O (l)
Hydrogen sulfide has a strong smell of bad eggs

Halide ion reactions with concentrated sulfuric acid table
 Exam Tip
It gets easier to oxidise the hydrogen halides as you descend Group 17: the
halides become stronger reducing agents
Page 69 of 83
2.3.4 The Reactions of Chlorine YOUR NOTES

Reaction of Chlorine
A disproportionation reaction is a reaction in which the same species is both
oxidised and reduced
The reaction of chlorine with dilute alkali is an example of a disproportionation
reaction
In these reactions, the chlorine gets oxidised and reduced at the same time
Different reactions take place at different temperatures of the dilute alkali
Chlorine in cold alkali (15 oC)
The ionic equation is:
The ionic equation shows that the chlorine gets both oxidised and reduced
Chlorine gets oxidised as there is an increase in ox. no. from 0 to +1 in ClO-(aq)
The half-equation for the oxidation reaction is:
Chlorine gets reduced as there is a decrease in ox. no. from 0 to -1 in Cl-(aq)

The half-equation for the reduction reaction is:
Chlorine in hot alkali (70 oC)

The ionic equation is:
Page 70 of 83
YOUR NOTES
The ionic equation shows that the chlorine gets both oxidised and reduced
Chlorine gets oxidised as there is an increase in ox. no. from 0 to +5 in ClO3-(aq)
The half-equation for the oxidation reaction is:
Chlorine gets reduced as there is a decrease in ox. no. from 0 to -1 in Cl-(aq)

The half-equation for the reduction reaction is:
Page 71 of 83
Chlorine in Water Purification YOUR NOTES
Chlorine can be used to clean water and make it drinkable 

The reaction of chlorine in water is a disproportionation reaction in which the
chlorine gets both oxidised and reduced

The disproportionation reaction of chlorine with water in which chlorine gets reduced
to HCl and oxidised to HClO
Chloric(I) acid (HClO) sterilises water by killing bacteria

Chloric acid can further dissociate in water to form ClO-(aq):
HClO(aq) → H+(aq) + ClO -(aq)
ClO-(aq) also acts as a sterilising agent cleaning the water
 Exam Tip
Adding chlorine to a water supply is an effective way to make the water safe
to drink as it forms the sterilising agent HClO which in turn dissociates in
water into another sterilising agent, ClO-(aq)
Page 72 of 83
2.4 Nitrogen & Sulfur YOUR NOTES

2.4.1 Nitrogen and its Compounds
Reactivity of Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule and the main unreactive gas in air
78% of air is nitrogen gas
The lack of reactivity of nitrogen gas can be explained by looking at its
intramolecular bonds
Intramolecular bonds are the bonds within a molecule
Bonding in nitrogen
The electron configuration of a nitrogen atom is 1s2 2s2 2p3
To achieve a full outer shell of electrons, it needs to gain three electrons
Nitrogen atoms therefore form a triple covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms
in which they share three electrons with each other

The diagram shows a triple covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms to achieve a
full outer shell of electrons
The bond enthalpy of the nitrogen triple bond is 1000 kJ mol-1

This means that 1000 kJ of energy is needed to break one mole of N2 triple bond
As it is so difficult to break the nitrogen triple bond, nitrogen and oxygen gas in
air will not react with each other
Only under extreme conditions will nitrogen gas react (eg. during a thunderstorm)
Polarity of nitrogen
The electrons in a nitrogen molecule are shared equally between the two nitrogen
atoms
Therefore, nitrogen molecules are nonpolar molecules

Page 73 of 83
YOUR NOTES
Since the electronegativity of the two nitrogen atoms is the same, the will pull the
electrons towards them equally so overall the molecule is nonpolar
Due to the lack of polarity, nitrogen gas is not attracted to or likely to react with
other molecules the way polar molecules would
 Exam Tip
Nitrogen is very unreactive due to the lack of polarity and strength of its
triple bond.
Page 74 of 83
Properties of Ammonia YOUR NOTES
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and will turn damp red litmus paper blue as 
it is an alkaline gas
Ammonia is made on a large scale in industry using the Haber process:
N 2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
Basicity of ammonia
Ammonia can act as a Brønsted–Lowry base by accepting a proton (H+) using the
lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom to form an ammonium ion:
NH3(aq) + H+(aq) → NH4+(aq)
In an aqueous solution of ammonia, an equilibrium mixture is established

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Since the position of the equilibrium lies well over to the left the ammonia solution
is only weakly alkaline
There is a higher concentration of ammonia molecules than hydroxide ions in
solution
Ammonia is therefore a weak base
Structure & formation of ammonium ion
The ammonium ion is formed by an acid-base reaction of ammonia with water:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The nitrogen in ammonia is covalently bonded to three hydrogen atoms and has
one lone pair of electrons causing the ammonia molecule to have a pyramidal
shape
Ammonia has a pyramidal shape due to its lone pair of electrons
Page 75 of 83
The nitrogen atom in ammonia uses its lone pair of electrons to form a dative YOUR NOTES
bond with a proton to form the ammonium ion 

The ammonium ion has a tetrahedral shape in which all bonds have the same
length
The tetrahedral shape of the ammonium ion
Preparation of ammonia gas from an ammonium salt

Ammonia gas can be prepared from an ammonium salt and a base in an acid-base
reaction:
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) are mixed together
and then heated
NH4+ acts as an acid (proton donor) and OH- acts as a base (proton acceptor)
This acid-base reaction can be used to test if an unknown solution contains
ammonium ions
If the unknown solution does contain ammonium ions, it will react with calcium
hydroxide to form ammonia gas
This ammonia gas will turn damp red litmus paper blue

Page 76 of 83
YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows the apparatus set up for the preparation of ammonia gas from an
ammonium salt and calcium hydroxide
Page 77 of 83
2.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides YOUR NOTES

Oxides of Nitrogen
Natural occurrence of nitrogen oxides
Due to its lack of reactivity, only under extreme conditions will nitrogen react with
oxygen to form gaseous nitrogen oxides
An example of these extreme conditions is lightning which can trigger the
formation of nitrogen(II) and nitrogen(IV) oxides (NO and NO2 respectively)
The chemical equations for these reactions are:
N 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2NO(g)
N 2(g) + 2O 2(g) → 2NO 2(g)
Man-made occurrence of nitrogen oxides

In the engine of a car, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed and ignited by a
spark
Air consists of 78% of nitrogen and 21% of oxygen
Under the high pressure and temperature inside a car engine, nitrogen can react
with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides
These nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere through the car’s exhaust
fumes
Catalytic removal of nitrogen oxides

The nitrogen oxides released through cars’ exhaust fumes pollute the atmosphere
Many car exhaust systems are therefore fitted with catalytic converters to reduce
the pollutants from motor vehicles
The nitrogen oxides are reduced on the surface of the hot catalyst (e.g. platinum)
to form the unreactive and harmless nitrogen gas which is then released from the
vehicle’s exhaust pipe into the atmosphere
The chemical reaction for the reduction of nitrogen oxide to nitrogen gas by the
catalyst is as follows:
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → 2CO 2(g) + N 2(g)
Page 78 of 83
YOUR NOTES
A catalytic converter helps reduce the pollutants from motor vehicles
Page 79 of 83
Oxides of Nitrogen & Photochemical Smog YOUR NOTES
Nitrogen oxides are examples of primary pollutants because they are given off 
directly into the air from the source of pollution
Examples of pollution sources are car exhausts and power plants
Nitrogen oxides are extra dangerous as they can react with substances in the air to
make secondary pollutants
These are pollutants that are not given off directly into the air from human activity
Exhaust fumes contain another primary pollutant called volatile organic
compound (VOCs)
These are unburnt hydrocarbons from fuel and their oxidised products
VOCs react with nitrogen oxides in air to form peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN,
CH3CO3NO2)
Sunlight provides the energy needed to start off the reactions of VOCs and nitrogen
oxides in air, so they are also called photochemical reactions
PAN is one of the harmful pollutants found in photochemical smog
‘Smog’ is derived from ‘smoke’ and ‘fog’
PAN affects the lungs and eyes and in high concentrations plant-life
Primary & secondary pollutant types & their pollution source table
Page 80 of 83
YOUR NOTES
The diagram shows the formation of PAN from the photochemical reaction between
VOCs and nitrogen oxide
Page 81 of 83
Oxides of Nitrogen & Acid Rain YOUR NOTES
Formation of acid rain by nitrogen oxides 

As mentioned earlier, lightning strikes trigger the formation of nitrogen(II) and
nitrogen (IV) oxides in air:
2NO(g) + O 2(g) ⇌ 2NO 2(g)
The air also contains oxygen and tiny droplets of water that make up clouds
The nitrogen(IV) oxide (NO2) dissolves and reacts in water with oxygen as follows:
NO 2(aq) + H2O(l) + 1½O 2(g) → 2HNO 3(aq)
When the clouds rise, the temperature decreases, and the droplets get larger
When the droplet containing dilute nitric acid are heavy enough, they will fall down
as acid rain
The diagram shows the formation of acid rain by the oxidation of nitrogen(IV) oxide
Page 82 of 83
Nitrogen oxide as a catalyst YOUR NOTES
Acid rain also contains dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 

Sulfur(IV) oxide (SO2) is another pollutant found in the atmosphere
When SO2 is oxidised, it forms SO3 which reacts with rainwater to form dilute
sulfuric acid as follows:
SO 3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO 4(aq)
Nitrogen oxides can directly cause acid rain but can also act as catalysts in the
formation of acid rain
NO2 catalyses the oxidation of SO2 to SO3:
NO 2(g) + SO 2(g) → SO 3(g) + NO(g)
The formed NO gets oxidised to regenerate NO2:

NO(g) + ½ O 2(g) → NO 2(g)
The regenerated NO2 molecule can get again oxidise another SO2 molecule to SO3
which will react with rainwater to form H2SO4
The formation of dilute sulfuric acid is catalysed by the nitrogen oxides
Page 83 of 83

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2.1 The Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity YOUR NOTES

The atomic radius gives a measure of the size of atoms

Atomic radii of Period 3 elements table

Across the period, the atomic radii decrease

A general increase in melting point for the Period 3 elements up to silicon is

2.1.2 Period 3 Elements: Structure & Bonding YOUR NOTES

the smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na YOUR NOTES

Because of this, the melting points increase going from Na to Al 

2.1.3 Period 3 Oxides YOUR NOTES

Reaction of Period 3 elements with chlorine table

Reaction of sodium & magnesium with water

The diagram shows the reaction of sodium with cold water

Magnesium reacts extremely slowly with cold water:

Oxidation Number of the Period 3 Oxides YOUR NOTES

Oxygen is more electronegative than any of the Period 3 elements 

Oxidation states of the Period 3 elements in their oxides

Reaction of Period 3 Oxides & Water YOUR NOTES

Not all Period 3 oxides react with or are soluble in water 

Reaction of Period 3 oxides with water table

2.1.4 Period 3 Oxides & Hydroxides: Acid/Base Behaviour YOUR NOTES

Reactions of the Period 3 oxides with acid/base table

The difference in electronegativity between oxygen and Na, Mg and Al is the

The diagram shows the structure of some Period 3 oxides

The H2SO4 is an acid which will donate a H+ to water:

This behaviour is very typical of an ionic bonded metal oxide 

Mg(OH)2 is also a basic compound which is often used in indigestion remedies by

Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and can acts both as an acid and base:

Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) → NaAl(OH)4(aq)

2.1.5 Period 3 Chlorides YOUR NOTES

Sodium & magnesium chloride

The two forms in which aluminium chloride exists

SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO 2(s) + 4HCl(g)

Both H3PO4 and dissolved HCl are highly acidic

2.1.6 Period 3 Elements: Electronegativity & Bonding YOUR NOTES

The diagram shows the trends in electronegativity of the Period 3 elements

Si is a non-metallic element and has a giant molecular structure in which each Si

held together by strong covalent bonds

2.1.7 Period 3 Chlorides & Oxides YOUR NOTES

bonding and structure of their chlorides and oxides 

2.1.8 Chemical Periodicity of Other Elements YOUR NOTES

Worked example: Deducing the position of an element in the Periodic

Break the question down and systematically approach the question

Step 1: Selenium is a nonmetal in Group 16 and if compared to sulfur, its structure

Step 3: Chemical properties are:

Group 15 chlorides gets hydrolysed in water, therefore this is a hydrolysis reaction

2.2 Group 2 YOUR NOTES

Group 2 reactions with oxygen & water chemical equations

Where M is any metal in Group 2

Except for, Be which does not react with water

M(s) + H2SO 4(aq) → MSO 4(aq) + H2(g) YOUR NOTES

Remember that SrSO4 and BaSO4 are insoluble 

2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2 Oxides, Hydroxides & Carbonates YOUR NOTES

And that calcium hydroxide is also called limewater

oxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water

Reactions of group 2 hydroxides

hydroxide + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water

Reactions of group 2 carbonates

carbonate + dilute sulfuric acid → sulfate + water + carbon dioxide

2.2.3 Thermal Decomposition of Nitrates & Carbonates YOUR NOTES

Going down the group, more heat is needed to break down the carbonates

Thermal decomposition of nitrates