[DOCUMENT TITLE]

[Document subtitle]

CHEMISTRY GR11
STUDY NOTES
Compiled by: Clarissa Iyer

[DATE]
[COMPANY NAME]
[Company address]
 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
1. Introduction 3
- Tips and advice

2. Atomic bonding 4
- Chemical bond
- Molecular shape
- Electronegativity
- Bond energy and length

3. Intermolecular forces 8
- IMF and IAF
- Physical states and density
- energy and temperature
- chemistry of water

4. Gases 13
- Motion of particles
- Kinetic theory of gases
- Ideal gas laws
- Temp., heating, pressure

5. Quantifying chemical change 16

- Molar volume of gases
- Concentration
- Stoichiometry
- Volume relationships

6. Energy and chemical change 19

- Energy change
- Endothermic and exothermic reactions
- Activation energy

7. Acid-base reactions 21
- Acids and Bases
- Acid – base reactions
- Ampholytes
- Reactions of acids
- Indicators

8. Redox reactions 25
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 - Oxidation numbers
- Redox reactions

9. The lithosphere 28

10. Mining 29
- Gold
- Iron
- Phosphate

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 INTRODUCTION
Tips on studying for Chemistry
1. Practice past papers as much as possible, as you will begin to find and interpret
correlations and patterns between them. This makes it easier and more efficient to
resolve problems.
Here is a link to a beautiful website that provides all DBE past papers for Physics P2
(Chemistry) grade 11: https://www.stanmorephysics.com/physical-science-grade-11-
exam-papers/
2. Make sure to know all your reactions
3. Remember your elements, and whether they are metals, non-metals etc.
4. Know your calculations, as stoichiometry can be a section where you can score full
marks

The material for Chemistry Grade 11 has been summarised down into 28 pages, and includes
the key points, formulas, diagrams, graphs and key terms of the all the different sections in
the work covered.

Please Note: Always make sure to listen and read the additional content the teachers may
give you, especially before a test or exam, as the work they choose to cover or focus on more
is sometimes most likely to come out in the paper. Always keep eyes and ears open
throughout each lesson.

3|Page C.J.I. 2021

 ATOMIC BONDS
TERM DEFINITION
Bond energy Energy needed to break a bond.
Bond length Distance between nuclei of the two atoms
Chemical bond The mutual attraction between two atoms resulting from the
simultaneous attraction between their nuclei.
Covalent bond Where two non-metal atoms in a molecule share an electron pair
during the overlapping of orbitals to form a molecule.
Dative covalent Covalent bonds between two atoms where one atom provides both
bonds electrons that are shared
Electronegativity (of an atom) is a measure of tendency of an atom in a molecule to
attract a bonding pair of electrons.
Ionic bonding Takes place between metal atoms and non-metal atoms if electrons
are transferred from a metal to a non-metal atom. The ions that form
attract each other with strong electrostatic forces.
Metallic bonds When metal atoms of a metal bond through the attractive force
between delocalised electrons and the crystal lattice of positively
charged atoms rest.
Molecule A group of two or more atoms covalently bonded which function as a
neutral unit.
Non-polar A bond in which the electron density is shared equally between the
covalent bond atoms. The shared electron pair is distributed evenly between the two
atoms in the region where the orbital overlaps
Octet rule All atoms, which the exception of hydrogen (H) and Helium (He), try to
have eight electrons, in four pairs of two, surrounding them to achieve
noble gas structures.
Polar covalent A bond in which the electron density is shared unequally between the
bonds atoms. The shared electron pair is distributed unevenly between the
two atoms in the region where the orbital overlaps.
Valence electrons Electrons that are found in the outermost energy level
VSEPR A model used to predict the shape of a molecule. According to this
model, the structural electron pairs (shared pairs and lone pairs) are
arranged around the atom so that the angle between them is as large
as possible.

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Chemical Bond
- Electrons always try to occupy the lowest possible energy level
- The noble gases have a full valence electron orbital.
- Atoms form bonds to try to achieve the same electron configuration as the noble
gases.
- Atoms with a full valence electron orbital are less reactive.

SOLUTION 1 SOLUTION 2
When bonds form When bonds don’t form
A hydrogen atom has only half its first electron Helium is a noble gas with a full valence shell
shell occupied and is therefore reactive. and is therefore inert (unreactive)
1. As the atoms come closer to each other, the Two atoms with full outer energy shells will not
electrons repel one another. bond with each other.
2. Then the positive nucleus of one atom will
attract the negative electrons of the other
atom.
3. Finally, the two positively-charged nuclei
repel one another.

+ Distance between Distance between

atomic nuclei atomic nuclei
Energy

Energy

0
X
-
X

5|Page C.J.I. 2021

Molecular Shape
MOLECULE SHAPE OF # OF BOND LEWIS EXAMPLE
TYPE MOLECULE SHARED ANGLE STRUCTURE
PAIRS
Linear (AX2) One 180° BeCl2
electron BeF2
pair
Triagonal Three 120° BCl3
planar (AX3) electron BF3
pairs

Tetrahedral Four 109,5° CCl4

(AX4) electron CH4
pairs

Trigonal Five 90° PF5

bipyramidal electron 120° PCl5
(AX5) pairs

Octahedral Six 90° SF6

(AX6) electron SCl6
pairs

Electronegativity

Increases
Decreases

PERIODIC TABLE
ELECTRONEGATIVITY

6|Page C.J.I. 2021

BOND △EN
Non – polar covalent 0 ≤ △EN < 0.4
Covalent and very weak 0.4 < △EN < 1
polar
Polar covalent 1 < △EN < 2.1
Ionic – transfer of △EN > 2.1
electrons occur

Bond Energy and Length

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 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
TERM DEFINITION
Adhesion Forces between different of particles
Boiling point The temperature where the vapour pressure of a substance is equal to
the atmospheric pressure.
Capillarity It is the tendency of a liquid to rise in a tube as a result of surface
tension. It is related to the adhesive properties of water molecules.
Cohesion Forces between the same type of particles.
Density The number of particles per unit volume. The stronger the molecule of
a material, the stronger the intermolecular forces.
Evaporation heat the energy needed to convert a given amount of a substance into a
gas.
Interatomic Bonds that hold the different atoms together in a molecule.
forces
Intermolecular Weak forces of attraction between molecules, ions or atoms of noble
forces gases.
Melting point The temperature where the solid state and liquid state of a substance
are in equilibrium.
Specific heat the amount of heat energy required to increase a unit mass of a
substance’s temperature by one degree.
Surface tension Caused by the cohesive force of molecules of the surface of water.
Thermal Means that the material expands on heating. Particles absorb energy,
expansion and thus the intermolecular forces are overcome or weakened, and
the particles move apart.
Viscosity An indication of liquid’s resistance to flow. Substances with a high
viscosity do not flow easily.

8|Page C.J.I. 2021

 TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Ion – dipole Occurs when a dipole approached a
positive or negative ion. The dipole
will move to that the side closest to
the ion has the opposite charge. A
positive ion will attract the negative
pole of the polar molecule.
Ion – induced An ion affects the electron cloud
dipole around an atom or molecule when
its nearby, causing a temporary
dipole.
Dipole – dipole Attractive forced between the
slightly positive atom in a polar
molecule and the slightly negative
atom in another polar molecule.

Dipole – induced A polar molecule can induce a

dipole temporary dipole in a non-polar
molecule or an atom.

Induced dipole / When two non-polar molecules or

London forces atoms approach each other, there is
a slight rearrangement of their
electron cloud. A weak, short,
temporary dipole is formed, which
comes and goes and alters
directions.
Hydrogen bonds An exceptionally strong dipole-
dipole force in comparison with
other Van der Waals forces. It occurs
between molecules in which
hydrogen is bonded to nitrogen,
oxygen or fluorine.

9|Page C.J.I. 2021

Physical states and Density
Molecular size
The alkanes are a group of organic compounds that contain
carbon and hydrogen in the compound. The carbon atoms
join together to form chains of different lengths.
The boiling and melting point of this molecule is
determined by the molecular structure and the surface
area.

Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance to flow through a liquid. Compare how easy it is to pour water and
syrup or honey. The water flows much faster than the syrup or the honey.
Substances with stronger intermolecular binding forces are tougher than substances with
weaker intermolecular forces.

Density
The solid phase is usually the densest phase. This can be explained by the strong
intermolecular forces in solids. These forces pull the molecules against each other resulting in
more molecules per unit volume than in the liquid or gas phase.

Melting and boiling points

Substances with weak intermolecular forces will have low melting and boiling points while
substances with stronger intermolecular forces will have higher boiling and melting points.

Thermal expansion
As a substance heats up, the molecule begins to move more violently (the kinetic energy of
the particles increases). This causes the liquid to expand during heating.

Thermal Conductivity
Heat is conducted through the fabric from the point being heated to the other point.
In metals, there are free, delocalized electrons that can help dissipate the heat energy
through the metal. In covalent molecular compounds there are no free delocalized electrons
and heat does not move through the material as easily.

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 Energy and Temperature
Using intermolecular forces to describe state change
EX. MELTING/BOILING POINTS
- HF has hydrogen bonds between molecules.
- HCℓ has dipole-dipole forces.
- Hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole forces/Intermolecular forces in HF
stronger/ Intermolecular forces in HCℓ weaker.
- More energy is needed to overcome/break intermolecular forces.

Chemistry of Water

Water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding is a much stronger type of
intermolecular force than the forces found in many other substances and it affects the properties of water.

1. Specific heat
Water has a high specific heat, which means that the water needs a lot of energy before its
temperature will change.

2. Absorption of infrared radiation

Water is able to absorb infrared radiation (heat from the sun). Large bodies of water act to
store heat, and can act to maintain a temperate climate for the earth.

3. Melting point and boiling point

The melting point of water is 0 C and the boiling point of water is 100 C (at standard pressure
or 0.987 atm). This large difference between the melting point and the boiling point means
that water can exist as a liquid over a wide temperature range.

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4. High heat of vaporization
The strength of the hydrogen bonds between water molecules also means that water has a
high heat of vaporization.

5. Less solid phase

Another unusual property of water is that the solid phase (ice) is less dense than the liquid
phase. This is related to the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules. Water expands
when it freezes.

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 GASES
TERM DEFINITION
Absolute zero The lowest possible temperature that any substance can ever reach. 0 K
is absolute zero point.
Boyle’s law The pressure of an enclosed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
volume of the gas, provided the temperature remains constant
Charles’ law The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas, provided the temperature remains constant
Gay-Lussac’s law Pressure is directly proportional to the kelvin temperature of an
enclosed mass of gas, provided the volume remains constant
Ideal gas Hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws under all conditions of
temperature and pressure
Pressure The pressure of a gas is a measure of the number of collisions of the gas
particles with each other and with the sides of the container that they
are in.
Temperature The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles.

Motion of Particles
@High pressures
When pressures are very high and
the molecules are compressed, the
volume of the molecules becomes
significant. This means that the
total volume available for the gas
molecules to move is reduced and
collisions become more frequent.
This causes the pressure of the gas
to be higher than what would be
expected for an ideal gas.
@Low temperatures
At low temperatures, when the speed of the
molecules decreases and they move closer together,
the intermolecular forces become more apparent.
As the attraction between molecules increases, their
movement decreases and there are fewer collisions
between them.
The pressure of the gas at low temperatures is
therefore lower than what would have been
expected for an ideal gas. If the temperature is low
enough or the pressure high enough, a real gas will
liquefy.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

- States that gases are made up of constantly moving particles that have attractive
forces between them.
- The pressure of a gas is a measure of the number of collisions of the gas particles with
each other and with the sides of the container that they are in.
- The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles.

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1. Gases are made up of particles. The size of these particles is very small compared to the
distance between the particles.
2. These particles are constantly moving because they have kinetic energy. The particles
move in straight lines at different speeds.
3. There are attractive forces between particles. These forces are very weak for gases.
4. The collisions between particles and the walls of the container do not change the kinetic
energy of the system.
5. The temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.

IDEAL GAS REAL GAS

Has identical particles of zero volume,
with no intermolecular forces
between the particles. The atoms or
molecules in an ideal gas move at the
same speed.
Behaves like an ideal gas, except at high pressures
and low temperatures. At low temperatures, the
forces between molecules become significant and
the gas will liquefy. At high pressures, the volume
of the particles becomes significant.

Ideal Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a fixed quantity of
gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies so
long as the temperature remains constant.

pV = k or p1V1 = p2V2

Charles’ Law
Charles’ law states that the volume of an enclosed sample of
gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature provided
the pressure and amount of gas remains constant.

VT=k or 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

14 | P a g e C.J.I. 2021
 Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) must
converted to temperature in Kelvin (K):

TK = TC + 273

Gay-Lussac's Law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
to its temperature, if the volume is constant.

pT=k or 𝑝1
=
𝑝2
𝑇1 𝑇2

General gas equation

𝑝1𝑉1 𝑝2𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

Avogadro’s law
States that equal volumes of gases, at the same
temperature and pressure, contain the same number
of molecules.
The universal gas constant

(R) = 8,314 J·K−1·mol−1.

Extending the above calculation to apply to any

number of moles of gas gives the ideal gas equation:

Must be in 𝑚3 8,314

pV = nRT
kPa x1000 Measured in Kelvin

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 QUANTIFYING CHEMICAL CHANGE
TERM DEFINITION
Avogadro’s law Equal volume of all gases, measures at the same temperature and
pressure, contain the same number of molecules.
Concentration (of a solution) is the amount of dissolves substance in mol per dm3
solution.
Empirical (of a compound) indicates the simplest ratio in which the elements bond
formula with each other and is the ratio in mol in which atoms bonded with each
other.
Excess The reactant of which some remains at the end of the reaction.
reactant
Law of mass The total mass in a closed system is constant.
conservation
Limiting The reactant that is used up first during a reaction. It determines the
reactant amount of product that will form.
Mol It is the amount of matter that contains the same number of particles
(atoms, molecules or ions) as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12.
Molecular (of a compound) gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a
formula compound, and could therefore be a multiple of the empirical formula
Percentage (of a compound) expresses the mass of each element in a compound as a
composition percentage of the total mass of the ompound.
Standard It is a solution of which the precise concentration is known which remains
solution constant for a period of time.
Water of It is the water molecules that are caught between the ions in an ionic
crystallisation crystal lattice.

Molar Volume of Gases

Avogadro’s number

6,02 x 1023 Individual particles

Number of
moles
n
Mass in Molecular
grams m M mass

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 Volume
Number of
(𝑑𝑚3 )
mol particles mol
𝑁 𝑉
n= n=
𝑁𝑎 𝑉𝑚

6,02 x 1023 Molar gas

volume

@STP
One mol of any gas occupies a volume
of 22,4 𝑑𝑚3 at 273K and 101,3 kPa

Concentration

mol
𝑛 𝑚
c= c=
𝑉 𝑀𝑉
Concentration Volume of
(mol.𝑑𝑚3 ) solution (𝑑𝑚3 )

Dilution
n1 = n2
c1V1 = c2V2

Percentage yield
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
x 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

17 | P a g e C.J.I. 2021
Stoichiometry
Determining the Empirical formula:
1. Step 1: Give the mass of each element
2. Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of each element.
3. Step 3: Write as a ratio
4. Step 4: Divide all numbers by the smallest number to simplify ratio.
5. Step 5: Write empirical formula using the simplified ratio.

Determining the molecular formula:

1. Step 1: Find the empirical formula (follow steps on previous slide)
2. Step 2: Find the molar mass from the empirical formula
3. Step 3: Divide given molar mass by calculated one. Multiply empirical formula by this
answer.

Volume relationships
Pressure

Temperature (K)

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 ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
TERM DEFINITION
Activated It is a temporary, high energy, unstable transitional state between
complex reactants and products.
Activation energy The minimum energy required to allow a chemical reaction to take
place.
Bond energy Energy necessary to the break one mol of molecules of a compound
into separate atoms.
Catalyst A substance that changes/increases the rate of a reaction without
itself undergoing a permanent change or being used up.
Endothermic A reaction that absorbs energy. Heat moves from the surroundings
reaction into a system. Thermal energy is transferred into potential energy.
Enthalpy The total amount of chemical potential energy in a chemical system.
Exothermic A reaction that releases energy/heat – heat moves from the system to
reaction the surroundings. Potential energy is changed into thermal energy.

Energy Change
When a chemical reaction occurs, bonds in the reactants break, while new bonds form in the
product.
- For bonds to break, energy must be absorbed.
- When new bonds form, energy is released.
- The energy that is needed to break a bond is called the bond energy or bond
dissociation energy.
Unit = kJ·mol−1.

Exo- and Endothermic Reactions

ENDOTHERMIC EXOTHERMIC
Energy is absorbed Energy is released
△H > 0 △H < 0

Energy absorbed > Energy released Energy absorbed < Energy released
Reactants + Energy → Products Reactants → Products + Energy
EX. 1. Photosynthesis EX. 1. Combustion

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 2. Thermal decomposition of limestone 2. Respiration

∆H = Eproduct − Ereactant

Activation energy
Chemical reactions will not take place until the system has some minimum amount of energy
added to it - activation energy
The activated complex (or transition state) is the complex that exists as the bonds in the
products are forming and the bonds in the reactants are breaking. This complex exists for a
very short period

Activation energy = energy of activated complex – energy of reactants

CATALYST
- speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering activation energy
The catalyst temporarily bonds with the reactant molecules, weakening intermolecular
forces. Therefore, less energy is required to break the reactant bonds (= lower activation
energy). So, the reaction rate increases.

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 ACID-BASE REACTIONS
TERM DEFINITION
Alkali It is a base that dissolves in water. Not all bases dissolve in water
Ampholyte A substance that can act as either a base or an acid. It is an acid in the
presence of a strong base and a base in the presence of a strong acid.
Arrhenius An acid is a substance that produced hydrogen ions (H+) or hydronium
theory - Acid ions (H3O+) when it dissolves in water
Arrhenius A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) when it
theory - Base dissolves in water.
Bronsted Lowry An acid is a proton donor
- Acid
Bronsted Lowry A base is a proton acceptor
- Base
Dissociation Existing ions separate when an ionic salt dissolves in water.
Indicator A weak acid or weak base which color changes when the H+ ion
concentration of the OH- ion concentration in a solution changes.
Ionisation New ions form when a covalent substance dissolves in water.
Neutralisation Reaction between an acid and a base. The base can be a metal
reaction carbonate, metal oxide, or a metal hydroxide.
Protolytic An acid-base reaction that involves the transfer of a proton or hydrogen
reaction ion.
Standard Solution of which the concentration is exactly known, and which will
solution remain the same for a period of time.
Titration Experimental method during which neutralisation takes place and the
concentration of the acid or base is determined

Acids and Bases

ACIDS BASES
Conducts electricity in aqueous solutions Alkali conducts electricity in aqueous
solutions
Sour taste Tastes bitter
Change the color of indicators Change the color of indicators
React with water to form hydronium ions Those that dissolve in H2O are called alkalis
H+ ions/atoms OH- ions
Neutralise bases Neutralise acids
React with metals to produce H2(g) and a Feels soapy
metal salt
React with carbonates to produce CO2(g) +
H2O(l) and a metal salt

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 Strong acids
Ionises completely and forms a high
concentration of H3O+ ions.
Weak acids
Ionises incompletely and forms a low
concentration of H3O+ ions.
Concentrated acids
Contains a large mol amount of acid
particles (molecules or ions) per volume of
solution.
Dilute acids
Contains a small mol amount of acid
particles (molecules or ions) per volume of
solution.
Strong bases
Dissociates completely and forms a high
concentration of OH- ions.
Weak bases
Dissociates/ionises incompletely and forms
a low concentration of OH- ions.
Concentrated bases
Contains a large amount of base particles
(molecules or ions) per volume of solution.
Dilute acids
Contains a small mol amount of base
particles (molecules or ions) per volume of
solution.

A strong acid/base can be made up in either a concentrated or dilute solution. Likewise with
weak acids/bases.

Acids – base reactions

H+

HCl(g) + NH3(g) → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq)

acid base Conjugate Conjugate
base acid

Conjugate Conjugate
acid-base pair acid-base pair

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Ampholytes
H2O Acid: H2O + H2O → H30+ + OH-
Base: H2O + H+ → H3O+
HSO4- Acid: HSO4- + H2O → H3O- + SO42-
Base: HSO4- + H+ → H2SO4
H2PO4- Acid: H2PO4- + H2O → H3O- + HPO42-
Base: H2PO4- + H+ → H3PO4
HCO3- Acid: HCO3- + H2O → H3O- + CO32-
Base: HCO3- + H+ → H2CO3
HPO42- Acid: HPO42- + H2O → H3O+ + PO43-
Base: HPO42- + H+ → H2PO4-

Reactions of Acids
1. Acid + metal → salt + H2
2. Acid + metal oxide → salt + H2O
3. Acid + hydroxide → salt + H2O
4. Acid + metal carbonate → salt + H2O + CO2

Mechanism
Titration

23 | P a g e C.J.I. 2021
Indicators

Indicator pH range Color for weak Color for conjugate

acid base
Methyl orange 4-6 Orange Yellow
Bromophenol blue 6-7 Yellow Blue
Thymol blue 8-9 Yellow Blue
Phenolphthalein 9-10 Colourless Pink
Alizarin yellow 10-12 Yellow Red

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 REDOX REACTIONS
TERM DEFINITION
Decomposition A complex reactant decomposes into a simpler compound
reactions
Displacement A less reactive element is replaced with a more reactive element in a
reactions compound
Oxidation When the oxidation number increases when electrons are lost
Oxidising agent The substance that accepts electrons and is reduced
Oxidation number (of and element) is a number attributed to each element in a
compound to monitor the movement of electrons in the reaction
Redox reaction Reaction where electron-transfer occurs.
Reduction When the oxidation number deceases when electrons are gained
Reducing agent The substance that releases electrons and is oxidised
Synthesis Two or more reactants bond with each other to form new, more
reactions complex substances

Oxidation Numbers

0 0 +2 -2
Mg + O2 --> MgO
Ox Ox
Oxidized Reduced
Loss of e- Gain of e-
Reducing Oxidizing
agent agent

Mg → Mg +2 + 2e- O + 2e- → O-2

Ox. Red.

25 | P a g e C.J.I. 2021
 NOTE: The oxidation
Finding the oxidation number number of a free
-4 +1 0 4 -2 +1 -2
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O element is always 0

Oxidation number of elements

C + 4H = 0 C + 2(O) = 0
C + 4(1) = 0 C + 2(-2) = 0 = Element + (number of atoms of
C+4=0 C–4=0 element) x (oxidation number)
C = -4 C=4

- The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equals the charge of the ion.
- The oxidation number of H is +1, but it is -1 when combined with less electronegative
elements.
- The oxidation number of O in compounds is usually -2, but it is -1 in peroxides.
- The oxidation number of a Group 2 element in a compound is +2.
- The oxidation number of a Group 17 element in a binary compound is -1.
- The sum of the oxidation numbers of all of the atoms in a neutral compound is 0.
- The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion.

Redox Reactions
1. Displacement reactions
When a less reactive element in a compound is replaced by a more reactive element, it is
called a displacement reaction.
Cu ions are reduced and zinc is
Cu (aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn (aq)
2+ 2+
oxidized. This is displacement
as the zinc replaced the copper
ions to from zinc sulfate
2. Synthesis reactions
In a synthesis redox reaction, the gaining and losing of electrons allows more than one
reactant to form one single product.

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

3. Decomposition reactions
A decomposition reaction occurs when a single complex compound is broken down into
simpler compounds.

2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2

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Balancing redox reactions
1. Look at the oxidation number for each element and determine which is being oxidised
(lost electrons) or reduced (gained electrons).
(If the oxidation number of a species becomes more positive, the species has been oxidised and if
the oxidation number of a species becomes more negative, the species has been reduced.)
2. Write down the two half reactions
3. Balance the atoms on either side
4. Add electrons to balance charges
5. Balance the number of electrons
6. Combine two half reactions
7. Write out final equation, leaving out the electrons on both sides.

27 | P a g e C.J.I. 2021
 THE LITHOSPHERE
TERM DEFINITION
Lithosphere Solid, outer crust of a rocky planet
Rock Collection of one or more minerals
Mineral Natural solid with a definite chemical composition and specific crystalline
Reserves Total deposit of a specific precious stone or metal that can be mined in
an area.
Ore Rock that contains minerals like precious stones and metals, and which
can be mined for economic reasons.
Slag Rock and minerals that remain behind after the desired minerals have
been separated from the ore.
Natural Natural resources occur in nature and can be used to create prosperity.
resources They can be exhausted and are non-renewable.

Open-cast mining Deep-level mining

How? Soil covering mineral-bearing ore is Shafts are sunk to reach mineral-
scraped off with machinery. Ore is bearing ore. Tunnels are made from
fired with explosives. Large vehicles different levels of a shaft. Ore is
transport ore from well. hoisted up.
What is it? Large hole with terraces. Shafts are sunk to the level of mine-
bearing gas.
Position of Mineral reserves are relatively Mineral reserves are very deep
minerals shallow.
Benefits Cheaper. Sophisticated equipment is Less damage to surface, less dust and
not required. pollution in atmosphere.
Disadvant- Leave large holes in area. Expensive
ages Destroy habitats Need lots of sophisticated and
Activities on surface cause air expensive equipment.
pollution. Workers must work deep
Dust pollution underground – high risk.

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 MINING AND MINERALS
TERM DEFINITION
Alloy a metal is mixed with a specific amount of another metal to improve the
properties of the metal and to harden it
Rust the reaction of iron with oxygen in the presence of water to form iron oxides

Recovery melting of gold in furnaces to remove impurities

GOLD IN SA
Deep – level mining
Where? - Witwatersrand
- Free state – Welkom and Virginia
- North – west – Klerksdorp
- Mpumalanga
How? - Crushing and milling
Advantages 1. Stimulate economic growth in the country
2. Brings foreign currency
3. Creates jobs
4. Stimulates industry and services
5. Contributes to development of infrastructure
6. Contribute to development of resources for communities
Uses -
Production of coins
-
Jewellery
-
Used in industry (circuit boards, spaceships etc.)
Influence on 1. Leaves massive holes in the ground
the 2. Leaves mine dumps
environment 3. Loss of biodiversity – change habitats and ecosystems
4. Contaminates water can leak into water systems
5. Large amounts of energy are needed – increases the need for fossil
fuels and indirectly influences the increase in acid rain and greenhouse
gases.
6. Needs massive amount of water – increases pressure on water
resources
7. Surface and groundwater are polluted due to acid drainage from mines
8. Air pollution
9. Noise pollution
Leaching Cyanidation
- Gold in chemically dissolved with a dilute cyanide solution. Oxygen is
boiled through it
Purification 1. Calcination – removing of moisture, burning off a combustible
impurity and the oxidation of metals
2. Fusion – gold is mixed with suitable flux and heated to a high
temperature for further purification.

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 Reactant added: Zinc powder

Precipitate: contains gold and zinc

Separation process: filtration

Reactant for the removal of excess

zinc: sulfuric acid

IRON IN SA
Open – cast mining
Where? - Norther Cape - Kothu (near Sishen)
- Limpopo (Thabozimbi)
Advantages 1. Job creation
2. Increases foreign capital
3. Stimulates economy
4. Strong malleable metal is produces which is used for making a variety of
products.
5. Iron can be magnetized and is easy to purify
6. Development of resources for communities
7. Contribution to conservative projects
8. Stimulation of industries and services
9. Development of infrastructure

Influence on 1. Scarred landscape mine dumps and denuded natural vegetation

the 2. Uses a lot of water – pressure on water resource
environment 3. Dust pollution
4. Noise pollution
5. Releases a large amount of CO2 into the atmosphere – leads to global
warming
6. Needs a vast amount of energy – increases the use of fossil fuels and
contributes, indirectly, to acid rain and the greenhouse effect.
Necessity - Water (moisture)
for rust - Oxygen
Rate of rust - Salt water – (faster)
is influenced - A low pH – more acidic conditions – (faster)
by: - Impurities in iron – (slower)
- The amount of oxygen and ions that are in contact with the iron
Preventing - Paint it or rub it with oil
rust - Rule our conditions that cause rust
- Galvanise the iron
- Connect iron to a more reactive metal

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 Steps
‘ - Crushing
- Washing with water
- Magnetic separation
- Sintering
- Pelletising
Blending of ores
for blast furnace

Limestone Carbon
CaCo3

Hot waste
gas
Iron ore
- Treat with: CO to
remove iron
- To remove impurities
- CaCO3 remove
impurities from molten
Fe to form slag
Furnace

Hot air Hot air

Metal slag: Floats on Pig/crude oil

top of blemished iron. Is
removed.

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 PHOSPHATE IN SA
Open – cast mining
Where? - Phalaborwa
Fertilisers 1. Superphosphates
produced 2. Triple superphosphates
Advantages 1. Phosphorus is a primary nutrient. It’s needed by plant and animal
cells
2. Job creation
3. Increases influx of foreign currency
4. Used in the production of fertilisers, phosphoric acid and as
supplementary feeds for animals
5. Development of resources for communities
6. Development of infrastructure
7. Stimulation of industries and services
Influence on 1. Air
environment - Large amount of fluoride is released – leads to fluorosis in people
and animals
- Dust pollution
- Released SO2 leads to acid rain and health problems
- Noise pollution
2. Water
- Phosphate leak – causes pollution in rivers and groundwater
- Acid water can also contaminate water resources
3. Land
- Scarring of land, mine dumps and denuding of plant life
- Gypsum remains in mine dumps during production of phosphoric
acid

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