CHAPTER 10

THE PERIODIC
TABLE: CHEMICAL
PERIODICITY
SLIDESMANIA.C

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Properties of the
Elements in Period
3
● Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number and placed in vertical columns (groups) and horizontal rows
(periods)

● The elements across the periods show repeating patterns in chemical and
physical properties

● This is called periodicity

SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Atomic radius
• The atomic radius is the distance between the
nucleus and the outermost electron of an atom

• The atomic radius is measured by taking two atoms of

the same element, measuring the distance between
their nuclei and then halving this distance

• In metals this is also called the metallic radius and

in non-metals, the covalent radius
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Atomic radii of Period 3 elements table
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C

The graph shows a decrease in atomic radii of Period 3 elements across the period
 • Across the period, the atomic radii decrease

• This is because the number of protons (the nuclear charge) and the number
of electrons increases by one every time you go an element to the right

• The elements in a period all have the same number of shells (so the
shielding effect is the same)

• This means that as you go across the period the nucleus attracts the
electrons more strongly pulling them closer to the nucleus

• Because of this, the atomic radius (and thus the size of the atoms)
SLIDESMANIA.C

decreases across the period

SLIDESMANIA.C

The diagram shows that across Period 3, the elements gain

extra electrons in the same principal quantum shell
 Ionic radius

● The ionic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron of an ion

● Metals produce positively charged ions (cations) whereas nonmetals produce negatively charged
ions (anions)

● The cations have lost their valence electrons which causes them to be much smaller than their
parent atoms

● Because there are less electrons, this also means that there is less shielding of the outer electrons
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Going across the period from Na+ to Si4+ the ions get smaller due to the
increasing nuclear charge attracting the outer electrons in the second
principal quantum shell nucleus (which has an increasing atomic number)

● The anions are larger than their original parent atoms because each atom has
gained one or more electrons in their third principal quantum shell

● This increases the repulsion between electrons, while the nuclear charge is
still the same, causing the electron cloud to spread out

● Going across P3- to Cl– the ionic radii decreases as the nuclear charge
increases across the period and less electrons are gained by the atoms (P gains
3 electrons, S 2 electrons and Cl 1 electron)
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Ionic radii of ions of Period
3 elements table
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C

Ions of Period 3 elements with increasing positive charge (metals) and increasing of
outer electrons across the period
 The diagram shows the electron configuration of the ions of Period 3 elements and
their relative sizes
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Melting point
Melting points of the elements across Period 3 table
SLIDESMANIA.C
 • A general increase in melting
point for the Period 3 elements
up to silicon is observed

• Silicon has the highest melting

point

• After the Si element the melting

points of the elements
decreases significantly

Ions of Period 3 elements with increasing positive charge (metals) and

SLIDESMANIA.C

increasing of outer electrons across the period

 Electrical conductivity

• Electrical conductivity refers to how well a substance can

conduct electricity

• Unlike the melting points, the electrical conductivity of the Period

3 elements shows a clear trend

• Going across the period, the electrical conductivity of the

elements decreases significantly

Trends in electrical conductivity across Period 3 table

SLIDESMANIA.C
 Period 3: Structure &
Bonding
Melting point

Melting points of the elements across Period 3 table

SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C

Ions of Period 3 elements with increasing positive charge

(metals) and increasing of outer electrons across the period
 • The above trends can be explained by looking at the bonding and structure of
the elements

Bonding & structure of the elements table

SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● The table shows that Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive
ions arranged in a giant lattice in which the ions are held together by a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons around them

Metal cations form a giant

lattice held together by
electrons that can freely move
around
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● The electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are those from the
valence shell of the atoms

● Na will donate one electron into the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, Mg will
donate two and Al three electrons

● As a result of this, the metallic bonding in Al is stronger than in Na

● This is because the electrostatic forces between a 3+ ion and the larger
number of negatively charged delocalised electrons is much larger
compared to a 1+ ion and the smaller number of delocalised electrons in
Na
SLIDESMANIA.C

● Because of this, the melting points increase going from Na to Al

 ● Si has the highest melting point due to its giant molecular structure in which each Si
atom is held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent bonds

● P, S, Cl and Ar are non-metallic elements and exist as simple molecules (P 4, S8, Cl2 and
Ar as a single atom)

● The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however, between the molecules,
there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces

● It doesn’t take much energy to break these intermolecular forces

● Therefore, the melting points decrease going from P to Ar (note that the melting point
of S is higher than that of P as sulphur exists as larger S 8 molecules compared to the
smaller P4 molecule)
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Electrical conductivity

● The electrical conductivity decreases going across the Period 3

elements

● Electrical conductivity decreases Period 3 elements table

SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Going from Na to Al, there is an increase in the number of valence electrons that are
donated to the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons

● Because of this, in Al there are more electrons available to move around through the
structure when it conducts electricity, making Al a better electrical conductor than Na

● Due to the giant molecular structure of Si, there are no delocalised electrons that can
freely move around within the structure

● Si is therefore not a good electrical conductor and is classified as a semimetal (metalloid)

● The lack of delocalised electrons is also why P and S cannot conduct electricity
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Exam Tip

● Intermolecular forces are forces between

molecules

● Intramolecular forces are forces within a

molecule
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Period 3: Oxides

● Reactions with oxygen & chlorine

SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Reaction of sodium & magnesium with water
● Sodium reacts vigorously with cold water:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

● The sodium melts into a ball and moves across the water surface until it
disappears

● Hydrogen gas is given off

SLIDESMANIA.C

● The solution formed is strongly alkaline (pH 14) due to the sodium hydroxide
which is formed
SLIDESMANIA.C

The diagram shows the reaction of sodium with cold water

 ● Magnesium reacts extremely slowly with cold water:
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

● The solution formed is weakly alkaline (pH 11) as the formed

magnesium hydroxide is only slightly soluble

● When magnesium is heated, it reacts vigorously with steam

(water) to make magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas:

Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)

SLIDESMANIA.C
 Oxidation Number of the Period 3 Oxides
● Oxygen is more electronegative than any of the Period 3 elements
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Formulae of the oxides of the Period 3 elements & their oxidation
states table
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Reaction of Period 3 Oxides & Water

Not all Period 3

oxides react with or
are soluble in water

Exam Tip

Since aluminium
oxide does not react
or dissolve in water,
the oxide layer
protects the
aluminium metal from
corrosion.
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Period 3 Oxides & Hydroxides:
Acid/Base Behaviour
Period 3 oxides

● Aluminium oxide is amphoteric which means that it can act both as a base (and react with an
acid such as HCl) and an acid (and react with a base such as NaOH)
● Acidic & basic nature of the Period 3 oxides
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Reactions of the Period 3 oxides with acid/base table
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● The acidic and basic nature of the Period 3 elements can be explained by looking
at their structure, bonding and the Period 3 elements’ electronegativity
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● The difference in electronegativity between oxygen and Na, Mg and
Al is the largest

● Electrons will therefore be transferred to oxygen when forming

oxides giving the oxide an ionic binding

● The oxides of Si, P and S will share the electrons with the oxygen to
form covalently bonded oxides

● The giant ionic and giant covalent structured oxides will have high
melting points as it is difficult to break the structures apart
SLIDESMANIA.C
 The diagram shows the
structure of some Period
3 oxides
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● The oxides of Na and Mg which show purely ionic bonding produce alkaline solutions
with water as their oxide ions (O2-) become hydroxide ions (OH–):

O2-(aq) + H2O(l) → 2OH–(aq)

● The oxides of P and S which show purely covalent bonding produce acidic solutions
with water because when these oxides react with water, they form an acid which
donates H+ ions to water

○ Eg. SO3 reacts with water as follows:

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

○ The H2SO4 is an acid which will donate a H+ to water:

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+ (aq) + HSO4–(aq)
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Al and Si are insoluble and when they react with hot, concentrated alkaline
solution they act as a base and form a salt

○ This behaviour is very typical of a covalently bonded oxide

● Al can also react with acidic solutions to form a salt and water

○ This behaviour is very typical of an ionic bonded metal oxide

● This behaviour of Al proves that the chemical bonding in aluminium oxide is
not purely ionic nor covalent: it is amphoteric
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Period 3 hydroxide
Exam Tip
● NaOH is a strong base and will react with acids to form a salt and water: Electronegativity is the
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) power of an element to
draw the electrons
towards itself in a
● Mg(OH)2 is also a basic compound which is often used in indigestion
covalent bond.
remedies by neutralising the excess acid in the stomach to relieve pain:
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) For example, in Na2O
the oxygen will draw
the electrons more
● Al(OH)3 is amphoteric and can acts both as an acid and base: strongly towards itself
Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) than sodium does.
Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) → NaAl(OH)4(aq)
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Period 3 Chlorides
Chlorides of Period 3 elements show characteristic behaviour when added to water which
can be explained by looking at their chemical bonding and structure
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Sodium & magnesium chloride

● NaCl and MgCl2 do not react with water

as the polar water molecules are
attracted to the ions dissolving the
chlorides and breaking down the giant
ionic structures: the metal and chloride
ions become hydrated ions
SLIDESMANIA.C

The diagram shows water molecules breaking down the giant

ionic structure of NaCl and MgCl2 to form hydrated ions
 Aluminium chloride

● Aluminium chloride exists in two

forms:
AlCl3 as a giant lattice and with ionic
bonds
Al2Cl6 as a dimer with covalent bonds
SLIDESMANIA.C

The two forms in which

aluminium chloride
exists
 ● When water is added to aluminium chloride the dimers are broken down and Al 3+
and Cl– ions enter the solution

● The highly charged Al3+ ion becomes hydrated and causes a water molecule that is
bonded to the Al3+ to lose an H+ ion which turns the solution acidic

● The H+ and the Cl– form hydrogen chloride gas which is given off as white fumes

The hydrated aluminium

causes a water molecule
to lose a H+ ion turning
the solution acidic
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Silicon chloride
● SiCl4 is hydrolysed in water, releasing white fumes of hydrogen chloride gas in a rapid
reaction

SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)

● The SiO2 is seen as a white precipitate and some of the hydrogen chloride gas
produced dissolves in water to form an acidic solution

Phosphorus(V) chloride
● PCl5 also gets hydrolysed in water

PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(g)

SLIDESMANIA.C

● Both H3PO4 and dissolved HCl are highly acidic

 Period 3: Trends in Electronegativity & Bonding
Electronegativity

● Electronegativity is the power of an element to draw the electrons

towards itself in a covalent bond
● Going across the period, the electronegativity of the elements
increases
● Electronegativity across Period 3 table
SLIDESMANIA.C
 The diagram shows the
trends in electronegativity
of the Period 3 elements
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● As the atomic number increases going across the period, there is an
increase in nuclear charge

● Across the period, there is an increase in the number of valence shells

however the shielding is still the same as each extra electrons enters the
same shell

● As a result of this, electrons will be more strongly attracted to the nucleus

causing an increase in electronegativity across the period
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Bonding & structure of Period 3 elements

• The table shows that going from Al to S the bonding changes from metallic to
covalent and the structure changes from giant to simple structure

• Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive ions arranged in a giant
lattice in which the ions are held together by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons around
them

• Since Al donates three electrons into the sea of delocalised electrons to form an ion
SLIDESMANIA.C

with +3 charge, the electrostatic forces between the electrons and the aluminium ion
will be very strong
 • The electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are those from the valence shell
of the atoms

• Na will donate one electron into the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, Mg will donate
two and Al three electrons

• As a result of this, the metallic bonding in Al is stronger than in Na

• This is because the electrostatic forces between a 3+ ion and the larger number of
negatively charged delocalised electrons are much larger compared to a 1+ ion
and the smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na

• Since there are more electrons in a metallic lattice of aluminium compared to

sodium and magnesium, aluminium is a better electrical conductor
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Si is a non-metallic element and has a giant
molecular structure in which each Si atom is held
to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong covalent
bonds

● There are no delocalised electrons in the structure

of Si which is why silicon cannot conduct
electricity and is classified as a metalloid
SLIDESMANIA.C

The diagram shows the giant molecular structure of silicon

where silicon atoms are held together by strong covalent
bonds
 ● Phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine argon re both non-metallic elements that
exist as simple molecules (P4 , S8 , Cl2 and Ar as single atoms)

● The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however, between
the molecules there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole
forces

● It doesn’t take much energy to break these intermolecular forces

● The lack of delocalised electrons means that these compounds cannot

conduct electricity
SLIDESMANIA.C
 The diagram shows the simple molecular
SLIDESMANIA.C

The diagram shows the simple molecular structure of structure of sulfur with covalent bonds between
phosphorus with covalent bonds between the atoms the atoms
 Bonding in Period 3 Chlorides & Oxides

● Period 3 chlorides

The bonding and structure of the Period 3 elements are summarised in the table below:
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● The table shows that Na, Mg and Al are metallic elements which form positive
ions arranged in a giant lattice in which the ions are held together by a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons around them

● The electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons are those from the valence
shell of the atoms

● Na will donate one electron into the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, Mg will
donate two and Al three electrons

● As a result of this, the metallic bonding in Al is stronger than in Na

● This is because the electrostatic forces between a 3+ ion and the larger
number of negatively charged delocalised electrons is much larger compared
to a 1+ ion and the smaller number of delocalised electrons in Na
SLIDESMANIA.C

● Because of this, the melting points increase going from Na to Al

 ● Si has the highest melting point due to its giant molecular structure in
which each Si atom is held to its neighbouring Si atoms by strong
covalent bonds

● P, S, Cl and Ar are non-metallic elements and exist as simple

molecules (P4, S8, Cl2 and Ar as single atom)

● The covalent bonds within the molecules are strong, however between
the molecules there are only weak instantaneous dipole-induced dipole
forces

● It doesn’t take much energy to break these intermolecular forces

SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Therefore, the melting points decrease going from P to Ar (note that the
melting point of S is higher than that of P as sulphur exists as larger S 8
molecules compared to the smaller P4 molecule)

● The presence of a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons also determines whether the

element is a good conductor or not

● Going across the period the electrical conductivity of the elements decreases
due to lack of delocalised electrons

● The electronegativities of the Period 3 elements therefore determines the

chemical bonding and structure of their chlorides and oxides
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Going across Period 3, their chlorides and oxidised become more
covalent and their structure shifts from a giant ionic to a simple
molecular structure

● Their reactions with water become more vigorous as a result of

this as it becomes easier to hydrolyse the chlorides and oxides
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Chemical Periodicity of Other
Elements
Periodicity: Predicting Position & Properties

● If the chemical and physical properties of an element are known, the position of
that element in the Periodic Table can be predicted

● Similarly, predictions can be made about the physical and chemical properties of
elements if the position of the element in the Periodic Table is known
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C

The diagram shows a flowchart of how to use the position and/or properties of an
element to make predictions about its behaviour
 Answer
● Break the question down and systematically approach the question

● Step 1: ‘Element X forms a chloride, which reacts with water to form a solution of pH 1’
The low pH of the solution formed suggests that the chloride is a non-metallic chloride (group 13 to 17)

● Step 2: ‘The oxide does not dissolve in or react with aqueous sodium hydroxide’
Since aluminium oxide does reaction with sodium hydroxide, element G cannot be Group 13
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Step 3: It forms an oxide which has a melting point of 1610 °C’
This suggests a giant molecular (covalent) structure which corresponds to Group
14

● Step 4: Element X cannot be carbon (which is in Group 14) as carbon dioxide is a

gas whereas the element X oxide is a solid (with a melting point of 1610 °C)

● Step 5: Element X is therefore a Group 14 element in Period 3 or lower

● Note that this is an example of predicting the position of an element based on its
physical and chemical properties
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Answer

● Step 1: Selenium is a nonmetal in Group 16 and if compared to sulfur, its structure is predicted to
be a simple molecular structure

● Step 2: Physical properties of simple molecular structures are low melting points, do not conduct
electricity and are insoluble in water
SLIDESMANIA.C
 ● Step 3: Chemical properties are:

○ Reaction with water: simple molecules do not react with water

○ Reaction with oxygen: reacts with oxygen to form an oxide of SeO 2 (if
compared with sulfur)

○ Reaction with chlorine: reacts with chlorine to form simple molecule of

SeCl2 which can react with the water vapour in air to form hydrogen
chloride (if compared with sulfur)

● Note that this is an example of predicting the chemical and physical

properties of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table
SLIDESMANIA.C
SLIDESMANIA.C
 Answer

Answer 1:
Group 1 and 2 chlorides react with water to form colourless solutions of pH 6.5-7
Group 15 chlorides on the other hand react with water to form strong acidic
solutions
Element X therefore belongs to Group 15 of the Periodic Table

Answer 2:
Group 15 chlorides gets hydrolysed in water, therefore this is a hydrolysis reaction

Answer 3:
The white fumes that are given off during this reaction is hydrogen chloride gas
SLIDESMANIA.C
 THANK
YOU!
Do you have any questions?
SLIDESMANIA.C