Name: _____________________________ SXS

AS3.4 Particles, substances and thermochemical principles

Year 13 Chemistry
AS91390 – 5 credits
What can I be assessed on?

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 Part One – Particles
Atomic Structure

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 • The atomic number is unique for each element. A neutral atom has the same
number of electrons as protons.
• The periodic table is arranged in order of an elements atomic number and the
mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons together.
• Electrons orbit a nucleus of an atom at fixed energy levels. An electron can
only be found in a fixed energy level around a nucleus.
• A ball bouncing down a flight of stairs provides an analogy for energy levels of
electrons because a ball can only rest on each step, not between steps.
• An electron can move up an energy level if energy is absorbed, such as light
or heat.
• When the electron moves back down to its lowest possible level the energy is
released again, often in the form of light.

Electron Orbitals
• The major energy levels (shells – 2, 8, 8, 18) split into subshells.
• Each sub shell level is made up of one or more atomic orbitals.
• An orbital is an area of
space with a high probability
of finding a particular electron
pair – we can never be sure
of their exact location
• Electrons orbit in pairs spinning
opposite directions

Electron Configuration of Atoms

• The arrangement of the electrons around the nucleus is known as its
configuration.

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 • The sub shells are numbered according to the major shell/energy level they
are in

• Electrons always fill the shells with the lowest energy level
first. (The Aufbau principle)
• The notation is written out in order
1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 3d10, 4s2 , 4p6…
1. All of the orbitals hold up to 2
electrons, which make up a
pair
2. The electron pairs spin in opposite
directions indicated with arrows
3. Electrons fill up orbitals with lower
energy levels first
4. The most stable (lower energy)
arrangement is for the sublevels
to be filled with a single electron
first (with the same direction spin)
before pairing electrons. (Hund’s rule) Place electrons singly first showing
upwards arrow. [Extension]

Element Electron Configuration Element Electron

Configuration
Hydrogen Potassium

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 Helium Calcium

Lithium Scandium

Beryllium Titanium

Boron Vanadium

Carbon Chromium

Nitrogen Manganese

Oxygen Iron

Fluorine Cobalt

Neon Nickle

Sodium Copper

Magnesium Zinc

Aluminium Gallium

Silicon Germanium

Phosphorou Arsenic
s
Sulfur Selenium

Chlorine Bromine

Argon Krypton

Note: Chromium and Copper have unusual electron arrangements

Cr and Cu gain stability by promoting an electron to the 3d subshell from 4s to
give half filled 3d for Cr and filled for Cu (more stable than almost full/almost
half full)

• Because the valence (outer) electrons are the ones that react, the inner
electrons are not as important and can be simplified using the closest noble
gas
• E.g. Germanium
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Electron Configuration of Ions
• Non-metal atoms gain electron(s) to fill their outer shell, forming negative ions
• Metal atoms lose electron(s) to fill their outer shell forming positive ions

E.g. fluoride, F-
F: 1s22s22p5 F-: 1s22s22p6

7 in 2nd 8 in 2nd
orbital orbital

• For metals with atomic numbers between 21 and 30 the valence electrons
include all of those in the 3d and 4s orbitals (transition metals)
• They don’t necessarily lose all of their electrons

E.g. Vanadium

V: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d3 V3+: 1s22s22p63s23p63d2

3 electrons are lost

from 4s then to 3d

• Atoms and ions are said to be isoelectronic when they have the same
electron configuration
O2- F- Ne Na+ Mg2+ Al3+

Note: The 4s orbital is usually written before 3d orbitals as it is lower in energy and
All have the electron configuration of 1s22s22p
therefore
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fills before 3d.
Practice: However – it will not be marked wrong either way.

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Periodic Table Trends

• Groups have the same

number of valence
electrons
• Periods have the same
number of shells of
electrons
• Metals on the left
• Semi Metals
• Non-metals on the
right

• Periodic trends can be seen in atoms and ions as you move across a period
and down a group.

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 • The trends investigated will include
• Atomic and ionic radii (distance from the centre of the nucleus to the
valence energy level)
• electronegativity
• 1st ionisation energy

1. Ionisation Energy
The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove electron from the outside
valence shell of each atom in one mole of atoms in the gaseous state

 An Ionisation equation can be written as: (M representing an atom)

M (g)  M+ (g) + e-
∆H = + kJ as this is always an endothermic reaction as it requires energy to
break the electrostatic attraction between nucleus and valence electrons.

 Going down a group, there is a decrease in ionisation energy (e.g. H to Li to

Na to K)

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 The electron that is lost is further away from the nucleus (by an extra shell of
electrons)
Therefore there is more shielding from inner electrons resulting in a decreased
electrostatic attraction between positive nucleus and valence electrons (despite
an increasing nuclear charge due to more protons)
 Less energy needed to remove an electron

 Going across a period there is an increase in ionisation energy (e.g. Li to Be

to B to C…)

As atomic number increases there is more positive protons in the nucleus

(greater nuclear charge)
Electrons are being added to the same level with no additional shielding
Stronger electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and negative
valence electrons so electrons are held more strongly
 More energy needed to remove an electrons
The first ionisation energy of any atom is always smaller the second, third etc.
ionisation energies.
• This is due to increased electrostatic attraction (already more positive protons
than negative electrons) To summarise:

2. Electronegativity
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Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction between a nucleus and a bonded pair
of electrons from another atom in a covalent bond.
Electronegativity is affected by two factors:
1. Nuclear Charge: as an atoms nuclear charge (number of positive protons)
increases there is a stronger pull on electrons of another atom by electrostatic
attraction
2. Number of energy levels: leads to more shielding and therefore a smaller
electrostatic attraction to bonding electrons and therefore a lower
electronegativity
Electronegativity and Bond Types
• Bond types between atoms can depend on the electronegativity of the atoms.
• Rather than discrete categories, molecules fall along a continuum.
• If there is little difference in electronegativity between two atoms then they
tend to form a covalent bond with no polarity difference.
• A greater electronegativity difference creates a polar bond with uneven
“sharing” of valence electrons.
• If the electronegativity is even greater then there will be a complete transfer of
electron from one atom (Metal) to another atom (non-metal) and ions will
form that are held together with an ionic bond.

Pauling Electronegativity Values

• A scale of electronegativity values was proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932
• Fluorine was arbitrarily given a value of 4.0 and other atoms were assigned
numbers relative to this
• Noble gases don’t have a value as they were not known to bond to other
atoms

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Pauling Electronegativity Scale (above)

• Electronegativity decreases down a group

This is due to increased shielding from an increased number of shells which results
in a weaker attraction to bonding electrons
This is despite an increase in nuclear charge (due to more protons), the greater
shielding still leads to an overall decrease in net electrostatic attraction

• Electronegativity increases across a period

Bonded electrons are in the same energy level/shell but there is more protons
(increasing atomic number therefore increasing nuclear charge) therefore the
attraction to bonding electrons increases across a period
Increased “pulling power”
To summarise:

3. Atomic Radii

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  Atomic radius relates to the size of atoms – it is the half distance between two
nuclei
 The actual sizes of atoms are calculated from the average distances between
neighbouring atoms
 Usually measured in picometres (pm, x10-12)

Atomic radii increase going down a group

• The positive charge of the nuclei increases (increase atomic number 
increased nuclear charge) but despite this…
• Valence electrons are in energy levels further from the nucleus therefore
increased shielding by inner shells of electrons
Net electrostatic attraction between nucleus and valence electrons decreases
 Atomic radius therefore increases as electrons are pulled less closely towards
the nucleus

Atomic radii decrease going across a period

• Atomic number increases (more protons) therefore increasing nuclear charge
• Electrons are added to the same shell (therefore no increase in shielding)
Greater electrostatic attraction due to increase nuclear charge – valence electrons
are pulled closer to the nucleus
 Decreased atomic radius

To summarise:

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Atomic and Ionic Radii
Ionic radius is calculated using measurements from ionic crystals
• Cations (metal ions) are smaller in radii than
their atoms.
• The outside energy level of electrons
are removed but the nuclear charge
(number of protons) remains the same
creating a smaller radii than the atom.
Normally, a whole valence shell is lost
which reduces the shielding effect.
• Anions (non-metal ions) are larger in radii
than their atoms.
• Extra electrons are added to the
outside valance shell that have to be
accommodated for and there is no
change to the nuclear charge.
Electron-electron repulsion spreads
the electrons out further creating larger
radii than the atom.
All 3 trends:

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Practice:

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Lewis Structures
Recall that Lewis Structures show the sharing of electrons in covalent bonds.
- Represents 2 electrons in a bond : Represents two lone pair electrons
1. Count the number of valence electrons from all atoms in the molecule
2. Identify the central atom (least electronegative one)
3. Link each atom to the central one with a single covalent bond (equivalent to 2
electrons)
4. Place the remaining valence electrons in pairs, starting from the peripheral
atoms then moving into the central one if needed
5. Check that atoms obey the octet rule (full 8 in outer shell) except for H (1), Be
(4), B (6), P (10) and S (12)
• If not full yet – share 2 pairs between 2 atoms (double bond) or three
pairs between 2 atoms (triple bond)

Lewis Structure of Ions

Polyatomic ions involve a number of atoms linked by covalent bonds with additional,
or fewer electrons, depending on the charge on the ion.
Square brackets should be placed around the structure with the charge next to it.
The same steps are followed for drawing Lewis Structures of ions but when counting
the number of valence electrons, electrons will need to be subtracted (if positive) or
added (if negative).
E.g. NO2-
N has 5 valence electrons, O has 6 (x2) a total of 17
Charge is 1- therefore need to add one more electron a total of 18 electrons

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More examples:
Hydronium Ion Hydroxide Ion

Octet Expansion
Atoms with atomic number greater than that of silicon (Z = 14) can
accommodate more than four pairs of electrons into their valence shell,
using their vacant d orbitals
Follow the same process as simple Lewis Diagrams
E.g. PCl5 Forms PCl6-

Shapes

See-saw

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Note the VSEPR theory views repulsion by the lone pair to be greater than repulsion
by a bonding pair hence the bond angles become smaller when lone pairs are
present.

Template for Explaining the shape of a Molecule or Ion

There are __ regions of electron density around the central atom __ that repel each
other as far away as possible (maximum separation results in minimum repulsion
forces) to give a _________ arrangement.
This leads to a bond angle(s) of __________
Since there are ____ bonding regions and ___ non-bonding regions/lone pairs the
shape becomes _______

Practice

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Explain the shape of the above two molecules:

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Polarity
Bond Polarity
If two identical atoms are bonded together then they have exactly the same amount
of attraction to the shared electrons in the bonded pair. This is because their
electronegativity is the same.

This becomes a nonpolar molecule with non-polar bonds. Example - Iodine molecule
I2

If two different types of atoms are bonded together then they will exert different
levels of attraction for the orbiting electrons.
That is because they may have different numbers of electron shells and different
numbers of protons in their nucleus. This will cause an electronegativity difference
and a dipole will form.
These bonds become polar bonds. Example – hydrochloric acid HCl

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Molecular Polarity
If the size of the bond dipoles are the same size (i.e. not different peripheral atoms)
then the bond dipoles can cancel out if they are arranged symmetrically.
Molecule Shapes with Bond Dipoles Arranged Symmetrically
• Linear
• Trigonal planar
• Tetrahedral
• Square planar
• Trigonal bipyramidal
• Octahedral

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Template for Answering Shape & Polarity Questions
There are ______ regions of electron density around the central atom, including ___
bonded pairs and ____ lone pairs.
The regions of electron density repel as far a part as possible (VSEPR) into a
____________ geometry with bond angles of ____.
Due to the _____ lone pairs of electrons not being visible in the shape, the overall
shape is _______________________.

There are ____ types of/aren’t polar bonds in the molecule due to a difference in
electronegativity between ____ and ____ where ____ is more electronegative than
___ (add more if needed).
The bond dipoles are arranged a/symmetrically in the _______ shape and therefore
can/cannot cancel out. This makes the molecule polar/non-polar overall.

Example – XeF4 xenon tetrafluoride (sciPAD p42)

There are 6 regions of electron density around the central atom, including 4 bonded
pairs and 2 lone pairs.
The regions of electron density repel as far a part as possible (VSEPR) into a
octahedral geometry with bond angles of 90o.
Due to the 2 lone pairs of electrons not being visible in the shape, the overall shape
is square planar.
There is 1 type of/aren’t polar bonds in the molecule due to a difference in
electronegativity between Xe and F where F is more electronegative than Xe.
The bond dipoles are arranged a/symmetrically in the square planar shape and
therefore can/cannot cancel out. This makes the molecule polar/non-polar overall.

Solubility & Polarity

 The solubility of a substance is the amount of that substance that will dissolve
in a given amount of solvent.
 Solubility is a quantitative term. Solubility varies depending on the solvent and
the solute.
 The terms soluble and insoluble are relative. Some substances can be
sparingly soluble where only the minutest percentage dissolves. For a solute
to dissolve the attraction to the solvent molecules must be stronger than
the bonds holding the atoms/molecules of the solute together

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Polar substances dissolve polar substances
e.g. Water, being polar attracts the molecules of other polar substances (e.g. HCl)
and will dissolve them.
Polar substances will not dissolve non-polar substances.
e.g. Water, (polar) has a stronger attraction to itself than to non-polar molecules (e.g.
cyclohexane) and will not dissolve them.
Non-polar substances dissolve non-polar substances
e.g. Non polar solvents (like cyclohexane) attract non-polar solutes (like napthalene)
by the same weak Van der Waals forces they attract themselves by and so will
dissolve nonpolar solutes.
Practice

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 Part Two – Bonding and properties

Chemical Bond Types

1. Covalent Bond
Sharing of electrons between the nuclei of each bonding atom. Typically
non-metal to non-metal.
2. Ionic Bond
Electrostatic force of attraction between 2 oppositely charge ions. In the
lattice, each cation is surrounded by anions and vice versa. Typically
metal to non-metal.
3. Metallic Bond
Metal to metal bonding where there is a force of attraction between
delocalised valence electrons and metal nuclei/cation formed from
valence electrons moving throughout the lattice.

If the electronegativities are all low  metallic bond forms

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If the difference in electronegativity is slight  covalent bond
If the difference in electronegativity is high  ionic bond

1. Intramolecular forces (within)

Metallic Bonding

 3-Dimensional array or lattice of metal atoms Electrostatic attraction

 Atoms are held in place by the delocalisation of between positive metal
loosely held valence electrons
 Electrons are free to move throughout lattice nuclei and the
surrounding,
Across a period delocalised negative
As the number of valence electrons increases, valence electrons
the attraction between ions and valence electrons
also increases  increased strength of metallic bond
This leads to increased density, hardness, melting and
boiling point
Down a group
Valence electrons are held in energy levels further
from the nucleus  reduced force of attraction between
electrons and nucleus  weaker metallic bond

Properties
• Malleable & ductile
Can be hammered into shapes without breaking and drawn into wires.
Metallic bonding is non-directional therefore shifting the lattice does not break any of
these bonds
• Electrically conductive
In both solid and liquid state as electrons are freely moving charged particles. When
a voltage is applied across the metal, electrons can flow from one end to the other.
They are continuously replaced at the other end from the electrode attached.

Ionic Bonding Strong

electrostatic
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force of
attraction
 • 3-Dimensional array or lattice of cations and anions
• Cations are metals that have lost electrons
• Anions are non-metals that have gained electrons
• Each ion is surrounded by ions that are oppositely charged
• Simple ratio of cation to anion

Down a group
Radius increase due to added electron shells.
Decreased attraction as the nuclei are further apart (weaker bond)
Across a period
Number of electrons/lost or gained determines charge on ion
Greater charge results in greater attraction between ions (stronger bond)

HIGHER CHARGE + SMALLER SIZE  STRONGER BOND

Properties
• High Melting and Boiling Points
Strong ionic bonds require large amounts of heat energy to overcome and change
state
• Electrically conductive only in solution or molten NOT as solids
In molten form or in solution, ions are freely moving charged particles and can
therefore conduct electricity
• Hard but brittle

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If a force is applied, the layers of the lattice shift causing like charges to align and
repel, shattering the crystal
• Greater solubility in polar solvents than in non-polar solvents
Cations can attract δ- ends of polar molecules, anions can attract δ+ ends and this
attraction is strong enough to overcome attractions between solvent molecules and
between the ions in the lattice

Covalent Bonding
• Attraction between nuclei of bonded atoms and
their shared electron pair is greater than the
Electrostatic attraction
repulsion between the two positive atomic nuclei between nuclei of an
and the repulsion between electrons atom and shared
• Atoms can share a single pair of electrons bonding electrons
(single bond), two pairs (double bond) or
three pairs (triple bond)
Down a group
• Radius increases due to added electron shells,
making shared electrons further from the atomic
nuclei combined with extra shielding too causes a
decrease in covalent bond strength.
Across a period
• Increases across a period due to smaller atomic
radii due to no change in shielding and increased
nuclear attraction

2. Intermolecular forces (between molecules)

Chemical properties of molecular compounds depend on making and breaking

covalent bonds.
However, physical properties depend on intermolecular forces which are the forces
between molecules.
There are three main types of intermolecular forces of attraction
• Temporary dipole-dipole Increasing
• Permanent dipole-dipole Strength
• Hydrogen bond

1. Temporary dipole-dipole attractions

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• A compound can only exist
as a solid if the forces of
attraction between the molecules
are strong enough to hold it together
• Temporary dipoles occur in
all molecules, polar and
non-polar
• Also known as dispersion
forces or London forces

• Temporary dipoles occur because electrons in a molecule are in constant

motion and so there is a high probability that at any one instant, there will be
greater electron density on one side of the molecule than the other
• This causes an instantaneous dipole or temporary dipole with one part
with slightly extra electron density (δ-) and another with slightly less (δ+)
• If two non-polar molecules approach each other then an instantaneous dipole
in one can induce another temporary dipole in another molecules resulting in
the molecules being attracted to each other
• These forces are called temporary/instantaneous dipole-dipole attractions

• The ease at which an electron cloud can be distorted is called polarisability

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 • The greater the number of electrons there are in a molecule (i.e. the greater
the size of the electron cloud) then the greater the polarisability
• More electrons leads to greater charge separating and therefore a larger
temporary dipole
• This results in a stronger force of attraction
E.g.
Element Formula Molar Mass (gmol-1) Melting Point (oC)
Fluorine F2 38.0 -220
Chlorine Cl2 71.0 -101
Bromine Br2 159.8 -7
Iodine I2 253.8 114

• Strength of the attraction is also influenced by the shape of the molecule

• Straight chain molecules can interact strongly
• Spherical or branched molecules cannot as there is less surface area to
contact neighbouring molecules, reducing the force of the attraction
E.g.

2. Permanent dipole-dipole attractions

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 • Only occur in polar molecules
• Stronger than temporary dipole-dipole attractions
• Rather than a temporary distortion of the electron cloud due to chance (as in
temporary dipoles), there is a permanent dipole in polar molecules due to the
uneven arrangement of charge (i.e. the separation of electrons stays that
way)
• There are polar bonds due to differences in electronegativity between atoms
that cannot cancel out due to asymmetry in the molecular shape
• There is a permanent positive and negative end of the molecule

• In polar molecules the forces of attraction between molecules arises from

BOTH temporary and permanent dipoles
• Hence the boiling points of polar molecules is higher than that of a non-polar
molecule that has a similar molar mass
• It takes more energy to break these forces of attraction between polar
molecules to separate the molecules from the liquid to gaseous state
E.g. F2 (non-polar) has a melting point of -220oC whereas HCl (polar) has a melting
point of -114oC indicating a stronger force of attraction between HCl molecules than
between F2 molecules

3. Hydrogen Bonding

 An exceptionally strong dipole-dipole attraction

 Occurs in compounds that have H-F, H-O and H-N bonds
 These bonds are very polar resulting in a highly positive
hydrogen atom
 This H atom is attracted to strongly non-bonding
electron pairs on O, N or F of a neighbouring atom

Factors that contribute to the strength of the hydrogen bond

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 • The large electronegativity difference between the atoms
• Hydrogen only having one electron – shift in electron density to the bonded
atom leaves the hydrogen nucleus exposed to neighbouring molecules
• Since H is so small it can get in close to neighbouring N, O or F
• Lone pair on N, O and F
H-F: --- H-F: Strongest
H-O: --- H-O:
H-N: --- H-N: Weakest

This explains why ice is less dense than water

Most molecular solids expand on melting but with water, when it melts the H-bonds
break and collapse inwards, increasing the density

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Writing frame to explain intermolecular attractions between molecules

Non-polar molecules
____________________ is a non-polar molecule and therefore only has
weak temporary dipole-dipole attractions between molecules. The
strength of these attractions depend on the molar mass and therefore
the size of the electron cloud in each molecule. The sum of these
attractions is relatively low and therefore only requires small amounts of
heat energy to overcome. This leads to a relative low melting/boiling
point.

Polar molecules
____________________ is a polar molecule and therefore has both
weak temporary dipole-dipole attractions between molecules and slightly
stronger permanent dipole-dipole attractions arising from the attraction
between opposite ends of the polar dipoles of the molecules. The sum of
these attractions is higher than that between non-polar molecules, and
therefore requires more heat energy to overcome. This leads to a
relatively higher melting/boiling point compared to ________.

Polar molecules with an N/O/F – H group

____________________ is a polar molecule with an N/O/F –H group
and therefore has both weak temporary dipole-dipole attractions
between molecules and the strongest type of intermolecular attraction,
hydrogen bonding. The δ+ H part of one molecule strongly attracts the δ-
N/O/F part on another molecule. The sum of these attractions is very
strong and therefore requires a relatively large amount of heat energy to
overcome. This leads to a relatively higher melting/boiling point
compared to ________.

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Checklist to answer questions:
 All intermolecular forces present are identified and explained
E.g. temporary dipole-dipole arises from momentary attractions
and repulsions of the electron cloud. The attraction is stronger with
increasing molar mass and therefore size of electron cloud.
Permanent dipole- dipole attractions arise from the electrostatic
attraction of molecular dipoles in polar molecules.
H-bonding arises from the attraction of the δ+ H part of one
molecule and the δ- N/O/F part on another molecule
 Strength of intermolecular forces are compared
H-bonding > Permanent dipole-dipole attractions > Temporary
dipole-dipole attractions between molecules with a larger molar
mass > Temporary dipole-dipole attractions between molecules
with a lower molar mass
 Statement about the sum of these attractions being relatively
large/medium/weak
Compare the sum of attractions between given examples (use
b.p/m.p to help you)
 Link to heat energy required to overcome the intermolecular
attractions
 Link to property given
Practice

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 Hint: Both molecules have H-
bonding but methanamine still
has a higher BP. What is
different?

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 Part three – thermochemistry
Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change (∆H)
• Enthalpy (or Heat Content) is the energy in a substance
due to kinetic energy of particles and potential energy in chemical bonds
• Enthalpy change (∆H) is the difference in enthalpy of products (HP) and
reactants (HR)
When a chemical reaction takes place, an energy change always occurs as
chemical bonds are broken, and new chemical bonds are formed. Energy is
absorbed when bonds are broken (i.e., endothermic) and energy is released
when bonds are formed (i.e. exothermic)
∆H = HP - HR

• Hp (products) and Hr (reactants) cannot be measured.

• We can only measure Enthalpy change (∆H) by measuring energy absorbed
or released (temperature change in surroundings)
Exothermic and Endothermic Summary – Year 12 Recap

PROPERTIES EXOTHERMIC ENDOTHERMIC

Choose one REACTION REACTION

Heat is released / absorbed

Temperature of surroundings
increases / decreases.

Products will have more / less

energy than the reactants

rH will have a positive / negative

value

Reaction involves bond breaking /

bond making

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Enthalpy Diagrams

Don’t forget to label products and reactants (with given examples

included), ∆H (with given value) & activation energy

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Enthalpy Calculations Revision

Remember: Enthalpy change of a reaction is measured in kJmol -1 (kilojoules per

mole)

It allows us to calculate the amount of heat released by a particular amount of

substance. We can multiply the ∆rHo by the number of moles used in the reaction.

Before we can do that – we need to know the ∆ rHo and also the number of moles
being reacted.

We can use n = m/M to help us.

In this formula, ‘n’ is the number of moles of a substance, ‘m’ is the mass of a
substance (measured in grams, g), and M is the molar mass of a substance
(measured in grams per mole, gmol-1).

Remember that n (moles) is indicating the number of actual particles.

1 mol = 6.022x1023 particles

We can also use the ratio below to help with these calculations:
unknownmoles unknownenergy
=
knownmoles known energy
 The ‘unknown’ data always comes from the question/experiment
 The ‘known’ data always comes from the thermochemical equation
 It is always unknown over known (U/K)

Heat and Specific Heat (Calorimetry)

We can calculate enthalpy from experimental data using the specific heat capacity of
a substance.

The temperature change and therefore enthalpy changes

during a reaction can be measured experimentally. The
reaction must be carried out in an insulated container or
calorimeter (in the lab a polystyrene cup is used) so as to
minimise the heat lost to the surroundings.

A substance’s specific heat capacity, c is the amount of

heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1.00g
of the substance by 1.00oC. For water the specific heat
capacity is 4.18 J oC-1 g-1 and all reactants used
will be dissolved in water. You’d be given this in a question.

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The temperature of the solution must be measured before and after the reactants are
added.

The density of an aqueous solutions (containing water) is taken as 1.0 g mL−1 so

1 mL of the solution would have a mass of 1 g. Using the temperature change, T,
the mass of the aqueous solution, m and the specific heat capacity of water, c, the
amount of heat energy gained or lost by the water can be calculated and this is
used to calculate the enthalpy change ∆rH° for the reaction using the 3 steps below:

Step 1: Calculate the heat energy (Q) gained/lost by the solution:-

use Q = m c T where T = final temperature − initial temperature

m = the mass of the aqueous solution

c = the heat capacity of water 4.18 J oC-1 g-1.

Note: The units for Q is joules, J , so divide by 1000 to convert answer to kJ.

Step 2: Calculate moles of substance used in the chemical reaction

use n = m or n = CV
M
Use the information given in the question and if there are 2 reactants then the one that gives
the least number of moles must be used. The units for n is mol.

Step 3: Calculate the enthalpy change per mole of substance

use ∆rH° = -Q
n
Units for ∆rH° is kJ mol-1

Note: If there is an increase in temperature then the reaction is exothermic and ΔrH will be
negative and if there is a decrease in temperature then the reaction is endothermic and
ΔrH will be positive.

Note: The measured Δ rH is often lower than the actual Δ rH°. This is because some heat is
often lost to the surroundings. To ensure that the measurement is accurate the reaction
should be carried out at standard conditions and the container used for the experiment must
be fully insulated so that all the heat energy produced is transferred and measured.

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Example:
Imagine we burn a 4g of propane and use the heat released to heat 1.5 kg of water
above the burning propane. By measuring the temperature change of the water we
can calculate the amount of heat released by propane combustion since we know
water’s specific heat capacity.

Let’s say that burning 4g of propane causes the temperature of the water to increase
from 18.1°C to 50.0°C.
1. Q = mc∆T = 1500g x 4.18 x 31.9 = 200,013 J = 200.0123kJ (for water)
2. n = m/M = 4/44 = 0.0910moles (of propane)
3. ∆rH° = -Q / n = -200.013/0.0910 = -2197.95kJmol-1 to 3sf is -2200kJmol-1

Double check. A negative enthalpy change (exothermic) which aligns in that heat was
released as the water was heated up.

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Entropy (S)
Describes the disorder or randomness of a
system. The second law of thermodynamics
outlines that everything in the universe tends
to increase in entropy overall. In other words,
a reaction that increases disorder (entropy)
will be more favourable.
Factors that affect entropy:
 Entropy is affected by the physical state of a substance.

Entropies of gases are much larger than those of liquids, which in turn are
larger than those of solids. This is because in solids, the particles can only
vibrate around their lattice positions, whereas when melted, the particles can
move around more freely this increases the disorder in a system. When a liquid
vaporises, all the intermolecular forces are broken, and the particles are free to
move apart and a large increase in entropy occurs.
The following phase changes have an increase in entropy (+)
H2O(s)  H2O(l) or H2O(l)  H2O(g)

 Entropy is affected by temperature.

The entropy of any substance increases when the temperature is increased as

the particles move faster and become more disordered, even if there is no
change of state.

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 Entropy is affected by the number of particles in a system.

If there are more moles of product particles than reactant particles in a reaction,
then there will be an increase in entropy as there will be more ways to create
disorder in the products than there is in the reactants. If there are more moles of
reactant then the entropy will decrease.
2Fe2O3(s)  4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) So = + 551 J K-1
2 CO(g) + O2(g)  2 CO2(g) So = - 173.0 J K-1

 Entropy is affected by the complexity of a system.

Entropy usually increases when a solid dissolves in a solvent as the highly

ordered structure of the solid (with either ions or molecules held in fixed
positions) will be broken as the particles will be distributed randomly throughout
the solution. Also the order within the solvent will be disrupted by the solute
particles being distributed between the water molecules.
AgCl(s)  Ag+(aq) + Cl- (aq) So is positive

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Spontaneity of Reactions
Whether a reaction occurs spontaneously or non-spontaneously, depends on both
enthalpy change AND entropy change.
 Spontaneous reactions are those that can occur by themselves without any
external help like an extra input of energy.
 Non-spontaneous reactions are the opposite and can only go ahead if there is
some external drive pushing them to go ahead. This requires an input of energy.

There is balance between the fact that everything wants to be low energy and high in
entropy. We need to consider the entropy of both the surroundings and the system.
ΔStotal must be positive in order for a reaction to occur spontaneously.
ΔStotal = ΔSsurroundings + ΔSsystem

 Therefore exothermic reactions (∆rHo negative) are favoured as they involve

higher-energy reactants forming lower energy products – releasing the extra
energy to the surroundings.
o Additionally, this energy released to the surroundings will increase the
entropy of the surroundings

 Therefore increasing entropy reactions (∆S positive) are favoured like

combustion reactions (that make lots of gas molecules) or melting (solid to
liquid) would be favoured. This increases the entropy of the system

So that leaves us with 4 possible combinations:

i.e. decreased entropy of i.e. increased entropy of

surroundings (heat absorbed) surroundings (heat released)

 A reaction that is exothermic and increases entropy will always be

spontaneous

 A reaction that is endothermic and decreases entropy will always be non-

spontaneous. Forming high energy products is non-favourable, as is opposing
the universal tendency to increase entropy.

 If we have a reaction that has favourable enthalpy change (exothermic) but

decreases entropy (unfavourable) OR unfavourable enthalpy change
(endothermic) but increase in entropy (favourable) then it’s a balance between
them – which factor would dominate (entropy or enthalpy?) – its hard to tell.

46
  What we can say is that sometimes having a favourable component will help
drive the reaction forward, even when there is an unfavourable component.
For example, an endothermic reaction, which is unfavourable, could still occur
spontaneously if there is a big increase in entropy.

Examples:

The entropy of the system increases since the ordered solid Ca

particles produce disordered hydrogen gas molecules. So,
there is a greater dispersal of matter and energy in the system.
The reaction is exothermic (as evidenced by the test tube
becoming hot). This means the enthalpy change is negative
and heat energy is released into the surroundings, so the air
particles gain heat energy / kinetic energy. As a result the
entropy of the surroundings increases.
Since the entropy of both the system and the surroundings
increases, this means the total entropy change will be positive
and therefore the reaction will be spontaneous.

You should always discuss enthalpy change

AND entropy change (surroundings and
system) in an answer

47
Consider that
 The reaction has 9 moles of gaseous reactants and 10 moles of
gaseous products – what does this mean for the systems entropy?
 The enthalpy change is negative (exothermic) – what does this
mean for the surroundings entropy?

48
Consider that
 Dissolving increases entropy (explain)
 The enthalpy change is positive (endothermic) – what does this
mean for the surroundings entropy?
 Look at the question – does it indicate that the reaction is
spontaneous or not?
 What does this tell you about the magnitude of the systems
entropy change vs the surroundings entropy change?

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 Specific Types of Enthalpy Changes
Note: all enthalpy changes are measured under standard conditions
 The temperature is 25oC
 The pressure is 1 atmosphere (101kPa)
 All other conditions should be the same

If the reaction is under standard conditions – we put a degree sign next to the enthalpy
symbol e.g. ∆rH means reaction is not under standard conditions but ∆rHo means it is under
standard conditions
Standard states: the state (solid, liquid or gas) that the substance exists in while in standard
conditions (i.e. at room temperature) You must indicate the states.
In general – only bromine and mercury are liquids at room temp., noble gases and fluorine,
chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are gases at room temp., all other elements are
solid at room temp.
There are 5 specific enthalpy changes that you need to know the definitions for:

1. Enthalpy of formation
2. Enthalpy of combustion
3. Enthalpy of vaporisation
4. Enthalpy of fusion Associated with Phase Changes
5. Enthalpy of sublimation

1. Enthalpy of Formation (∆fHo)

“The energy required to produce 1 mole of product from its constituent atoms in their
standard states, at standard conditions”
In other words, if we have a molecule or substance, ∆fHo is the energy required to
make this molecule or substance by joining all the individual atoms together.
By definition, elements have a ∆fHo of zero as they are already in their standard
states.
Examples
 water (H2O) is made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms
Hydrogen exists as H2 (g) and oxygen exists as O2 (g) at standard conditions
Therefore to make 1 mole of H2O:
H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g)  H2O (l)
You don’t normally see half mole ratios but for enthalpy of formation – it’s definitely
OK as the product must be 1 mole only
 Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms
Carbon exists as C(s), hydrogen as H2 (g) and oxygen as O2 (g)
2C (s) + 3H2 + ½ O2  CH3CH2OH

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fH°(CO2, g) C(s) + O2 CO2(g)

fH°(H2O, l) H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(l)

fH° (CH4, g)

fH° (CH3OH, l)

fH°(C6H12O6, s)

2. Enthalpy of Combustion (∆cHo)

“The energy change when 1 mole of the substance is completely burned in oxygen,
under standard conditions.”
Unlike the enthalpy of formation, here we are looking at 1 mole of reactant of
reactant
Examples
cH°(C, s) C(s) + O2 CO2(g)

cH°(H2, g) H2(g) + ½ O2(g) H2O(l)

CH° (C3H8, g)

CH° (CH3OH, l)

Note:- Organic carbon compounds form CO 2 and H2O when completely combusted with
oxygen.

If the reactant doesn’t have carbon atoms, then we just add oxygen to the thing
reacting.

CH° (S, s) S (s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)

3. Enthalpy of Vaporisation (∆vapHo)

“The amount of energy required to break the bonds in one mole of a substance to
change it from a liquid to a gaseous state”

∆vapH°(H2O, l) H2O(l) H2O(g)

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 4. Enthalpy of Fusion (∆fusHo)
“The amount of energy required to break the bonds in one mole of a substance to
change it from a solid to liquid state”

∆fusH°(H2O, s) H2O(s) H2O(l)

This is always a positive value (at Level 3)

5. Enthalpy of Sublimation (∆subHo)

“The amount of energy required to break the bonds in one mole of a substance to
change it from a solid to a gaseous state”

∆subH°(CO2, s) CO2(s) CO2(g)

Enthalpy Enthalpy of
of fusion vaporisation

From the diagram above, we can see that as energy (heat) is added to the system,
the temperature increases as this is a measure of the kinetic energy of the particles
in the system. However, once we get to the melting point – the energy is no longer
used to increase kinetic energy (therefore no increase in temperature). The energy is
instead used to overcome the intermolecular attractions to change state. This
repeats again until the boiling point is reached.

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Enthalpy Calculations
Calculating rH° using the standard Enthalpy of formation fH° values.

The standard enthalpies of formation values for the reactants and products in a reaction can
be used to calculate the standard enthalpy of any reaction using the following formula:

rH° =  nfH°products −  nfH°reactants

Where  means ‘sum of’ and n is the number of moles of each compound.

The fH° values for all compounds will be given in the question. However, it is important to
remember that the standard enthalpy of formation for all elements is zero.

If no enthalpy of combustion is given – use this method

Examples

1. Using the following standard heats of formation, calculate the standard enthalpy of
combustion of glucose. C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

Given fH°(CO2, g) = −394 kJ mol−1

fH°(H2O, l) = −286 kJ mol−1

fH°(C6H12O6, s) = −1268 kJ mol−1

rH° =  nfH°products −  nfH°reactants

rH° = ( 6 x −394 + 6 x −286) − (−1268 + 0)

= −2812 kJ mol−1

2. Using the standard heats of formation given calculate the enthalpy change for the
following reaction. 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Given fH° (NH3(g)) = −46.11 kJ mol−1

fH°( NO(g)) = 90.25 kJ mol−1

fH°( H2O(g)) = −241.8 kJ mol−1

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Calculating rH° using Hess’s Law

Hess’s law states that “the total enthalpy change for a given reaction is the
same whether it is completed in one step or in several steps”. Hess’s law is
therefore used to calculate the enthalpy change (∆rHo) for a reaction that has multiple
steps and a combination of ∆cH° and ∆fH° values are given for the steps involved.

Note: If all values given in the question are ∆fH° values then use the following method instead:

rH° =  nfH°products −  nfH°reactants (see previous notes)

Example
Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of hexane, ∆fH°(C6H14, l), using the information
in the table below.

Compound kJ mol–1

∆cH°(C6H14, l) –4163

∆fH°(CO2, g) –393

∆fH°(H2O, g) –286

Steps to use to calculate the answer

54
Step 1 Write the fH° and cH° information given in the form of equations (or equations
may be given in the question).

Step 2 Rewrite the equations to give the desired species on the correct sides of each
equation.

- If the reaction must be reversed then the sign of ∆H must also be changed.

- Also multiply the whole equation by the number to get the required amount
of a desired species.

Step 3 Add the equations and the ∆H values together to get the final answer. Check by
cancelling out the extra species in the equations leaving only the species needed in
the original equation.

The standard enthalpy of formation of hexane, ∆fH°(C6H14, l) is −197 kJ mol-1

55
Example 2
The equation for the combustion of liquid methanol is:

CH3OH(l) + 1½O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Calculate the standard enthalpy of combustion of liquid methanol, ∆cH°(CH3OH, l), using the
information in the table below.

Compound kJ mol–1

∆fH°(CH3OH, l) –240

∆cH°(C, s) –394

∆cH°(H2, g) –286

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