TOPIC 1

An overview:
The Periodic Table
 Periodic Table of the Elements
Contains all of the chemical elements that has been discovered.

Arranged in the order of their atomic numbers, according to the

horizontal series (called periods) and vertical series (called groups)
 The Element Families
Elements also can be classified by families.
A family may be:

only one
Hydrogen
element

only one Alkali metals Alkali earth metals Boron Carbon

column
Nitrogen Oxygen Halogens Noble gases

several
columns Transition metals Rare earth metals
put together
Hydrogen
• Hydrogen belongs to a family of its own.
• It is a diatomic, colorless and odorless gas.
• It has the lowest density of all gases.
• It is the most abundant element in the universe
• React vigorously with oxygen to form water. (Tragedy of Hindenburg airship
caught fire)

• On Earth, hydrogen is found in the greatest quantities as water.

(Seen as pollution-free sources of energy)
• Mostly produced by heating natural gas with steam to form syngas
 Alkali Metals
• 1st column on the periodic table (Group 1) not including
hydrogen.
• Atoms in this family have 1 valence electron.
• Shiny and light weight.
• Low densities
• Malleable and soft
• They are very reactive.
- Can cause huge explosion when reacted with water.
- Easily oxidized with something else. Naturally found in salt.
e.g: caustic soda (NaOH), rock salt (NaCl), potash (K2CO3)
• Have very weak attraction force between nucleus and valance
electron
Alkali Earth Metals
• Elements in group 2
• Atoms in this family have 2 valence electrons
• Silvery white, malleable, ductile, harder than alkali metal
• Less soluble than group 1A; reason : high lattice energy
• Reactive metals that are always combined with nonmetals
in nature.
e.g: limestone (CaCO3), barite (BaSO4), magnesite
(MgCO3)
• Several of these elements are important mineral nutrients
(such as Mg and Ca)
 Boron Family
• Elements in Group 13 or 3A
• Atoms in this family have 3 valence electrons
• This family includes a metalloid (boron), and the rest
are metals
• B - not form ionic compound, unreactive towards O2
and H2O
• Al – tripositive ion
- has many commercial application.
- readily forms Al2O3 when exposed to air. This
alumina able to form corondum upon crystalization
Carbon Family
• Elements in Group 14 or 4A
• Atoms of this family have 4 valence electrons.
• Si and Ge are metalloids and not forms ionic compound.
These elements are widely use in semiconductors.
• C, Si, Ge, Sn, Ph not react with water but react with acids to
liberate H2 gas.
• Contains elements important to life and computers.
• C is non-metal and the basis for an entire branch of
chemistry.
Nitrogen Family
• Elements in group 15 or 5A
• Atoms in the nitrogen family have 5 valence
electrons. They tend to share electrons when they
bond.
• N & P are non-metal; As & Sb are metalloids; Bi is
metal.
• Nitrogen and phosphorus are both important in living
things.
• Nitrogen makes up over ¾ of the atmosphere as
diatomic molecule gas (N2)
Oxygen Family
• Elements in Group 16 or 6A
• Atoms of this family have 6 valence electrons.
• Most elements in this family share electrons when forming
compounds
• This family includes a metalloid (Te, Po) and non-metals (O,
S, Se)
• Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust. It is
extremely active and combines with almost all elements.
• Many things that stink, contain sulfur (rotten eggs, garlic,
skunks, etc.)
Halogen Family

• Elements in Group 17 or 7A
• Atoms of this family have 7 valence electrons.
• Very reactive, volatile, diatomic, nonmetals.
• Halogen atoms only need to gain 1 electron to fill their
outermost energy level
• Always found combined with other element in nature .
• They react with alkali metals to form salts.
Noble Gases Family
• Elements in group 18
• Have a full valence shell/octet .
• Very unreactive, monatomic and colourless gases.
• Because they do not readily combine with other
elements to form compounds, the noble gases are
called inert.
• All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the
earth's atmosphere.
Transition Metals
• Elements in groups 3 - 12
• Hard and strong
• High density
•Good conductors of heat & electricity
•Able to have different oxidation state
(due to similar energy of 4s and 3d)
•The compounds usually brightly color and are often used to color paints
•Often utilize in the development of catalyst : provide alternative reaction with
lower activation energy
• Trace amount of transition metals in part of enzymes, hormones and cells in the
body are vital for maintaining health.
 Rare Earth Metal Family
• The thirty rare earth elements are composed of
the lanthanide and actinide series.
• They are all metals, that always found in
geologic deposits.
• They also referred as ‘rare earth oxides’
because they are typically sold as oxide
compound.
• Rare earth metals and alloys used in many
devices such as computer memory, DVDs,
rechargeable batteries, cell phone, catalytic
converters, magnet, fluorescent lighting and
many more.
 Why the Periodic Table
is important?

• The periodic table is the most

useful tool to a chemist.
• It organizes lots of information
about all the known elements.

Elements in the same group have similar

chemical and physical properties !!
 Periodic Trends : Atomic Radius
Atomic radius (r), is defined as one-half the distance between the two nuclei
in two identical atoms that are bonded together.

The units for atomic radii are picometers, equal to 10-12m.

Example:
The internuclear distance between two hydrogen atoms in H2
molecule is 74 pm.
r for hydrogen atom = 74 pm /2
= 37 pm
 Periodic Trends : Atomic Radius

Across a period
Generally, atomic radius decrease from
the left to right.
The larger the Zeff, the stronger nucleus
hold these electrons, and the smaller
the atomic radius

Exception : Atomic radius oxygen is larger

than oxygen. Why?

Down a group
Generally, atomic radius increase from top
to bottom within a group

Higher principal quantum number (n)

consist larger orbitals size, thus
increase the atomic radius.
Figure: Atomic radii of the representative
elements measured in picometers
 Periodic Trends : Ionic Radius
Cation Anion

➢ cation are always smaller than
the atom from which they were
formed.
➢ removing one or more electrons
from an atom reduces electron-
electron repulsion but the
nuclear charge remains the
same. The higher Zeff cause the
atom shrinks and reduce the
size.
➢ anion are always larger than
the atom from which they were
formed.
➢ adding one or more electrons
from an atom increase the
electron-electron repulsion force,
thus enlarge the electron cloud.

Na+ Na O2- O
95 pm 186 pm 140 pm 73 pm
Periodic Trends : Ionic Radius

• When comparing cations or anions within a column

(group), they get larger going down the column.
Example:
Ca2+ > Mg2+ and I- > Br-

• When comparing cations or anions across a row (period),

they get smaller going across the row from left to right.
Example:
N3- > F- and K+ > Ca2+
 Periodic Trends : Ionization Energy
Ionization energy : the minimum energy (in kJ/mol) required to remove an
electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state
First ionization energy (I1) : the energy needed to remove the first electron
from a neutral atom.
Second ionization energy (I2) : the energy needed to remove the second
electron in an atom

 I1
Na (g) → Na+ (g) + e- E = 496 kJ/mol

 I2
Na+ (g) → Na2+ (g) + e- E = 4560 kJ/mol

The greater the ionization energy

the more difficult it is to remove the electron
 Periodic Trends : Ionization Energy
➢ Within each row (period) : I1 of elements in a period generally increase with
increasing atomic number.

➢ Within each group : I1 of the elements in a group generally decrease with

increasing atomic number.

First ionization energy for elements in Periodic Table

 Periodic Trends : Electron Affinity
➢ The energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an
atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.
➢ The greater the attraction between an atom and an added electron, the
more negative the atom’s electron affinity will be.

Cl (g) + e- → Cl- (g) E = -349 kJ/mol

(exothermic)

➢ Within each row (period) : electron affinity generally becomes

increasingly negative as we across the row from left to right.

➢ Electron affinity do not change greatly as we move down a group.

 Periodic Trends : Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding
pair of electrons.

The Pauling Scale is the most commonly used to

measure electronegativity.

Flourine : The most electronegative element (4.0)

Caesium and Francium : The least electronegative (0.7)

Electronegativity increase across period because the nuclear charge number

increases. That attracts the bonding pair of electrons more strongly.

Going down the group, electronegativity decreases because the bonding pair
of electrons is increasingly distant form nucleus, thus reduce the attraction force.
Classification of element in the Periodic Table based on
the outermost subshell being filled with the electrons

How elements can be arranged in this way???

 Electron Configuration
Electron configuration is the standard notation to describe electrons
distribution in an atom or molecule.

number of electrons in
the orbital or subshell

1s1
principal quantum angular momentum
number, n quantum number, l

Orbital diagram
H
1s1
 Schrodinger Wave Function
In 1926 Schrodinger wrote an equation that described both the particle and wave
nature of the electron.

Wave function (y) describes:

1. energy of electron with a given y.
2. probability of finding electron in a volume of space
Schrodinger’s equation can only be solved exactly for the hydrogen atom. Must
approximate its solution for multi-electron systems.

y is a function of four numbers called quantum numbers

Quantum Numbers (n,l,ml,ms)

principal quantum number, n distance of e- from the nucleus

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….

n=1
n=2
n=3

29
 Quantum Numbers (n,l,ml,ms)

angular momentum quantum number, l Shape of the “volume” of

space that the e- occupies

for a given value of n, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n-1

n = 1, l = 0
l = 0, s orbital (spherical)
n = 2, l = 0 or 1
n = 3, l = 0, 1, or 2

l=0 s orbital
l=1 p orbital
l=2 d orbital
l=3 f orbital

l = 1, p orbitals (dumb-bell) l = 2, d orbitals (4 flower-like, 1 dumb-bell with ring)

 Quantum Numbers (n,l,ml,ms)

magnetic quantum number, ml orientation of the orbital in space

for a given value of l if l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, or 1

ml = -l, …., 0, …. +l if l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2

ml = -1, 0, or 1 (either 2px, 2py or 2pz each one, respectively)

3 orientations (different axis) in space

 Quantum Numbers (n,l,ml,ms)

spin quantum number, ms Direction of electron in an orbital

ms = +½ or -½

Example : 1s2
2 electron in orbital 1s:
• 1 electron have +1/2 spin (pointing upward)
• 1 electron have -1/2 spin (pointing downward) ms = +½ ms = -½
Shell – electrons with the same value of n

Subshell – electrons with the same values of n and l

Orbital – electrons with the same values of n, l, and ml

Existence (and energy) of electron in atom is described by its unique wave
function / quantum numbers – Schrodinger Wave Equation.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

No two electron in an atom can have the

same set of the quantum numbers

Is the quantum numbers for the 1st and

2nd electron in He is the same?

Just like in a stadium, each

person has their own seat
 Aufbau Rule
Is state that a maximum of two electrons are put into orbitals in the order
of increasing orbital energy.

The lowest-energy orbitals are filled before electrons are placed in higher-
energy orbitals.

Subshell Orbital Maximum

electron
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14

The order of filling electron:

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,……….
 Hund’s Rule
Hund’s Rule state that:

➢ Every orbitals in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is

doubly occupied.
➢ All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.
 What is the electron configuration of Mg?

Mg 12 electrons

Full electron configuration

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Can be abbreviated as
[Ne] 1s2 2s2 2p6

Draw an orbital diagram for Cl. Determine the quantum numbers for the last
(outermost) electron in Cl?
n=3
outermost l=1
ml = 0
ms = -1/2