Periodic trend on the

properties of atoms
 Reactivity

Ionization energy
Periodic
trends Electron affinity

Ionic and covalent radii

What is reactivity?
 Atoms will often take, give, or share electrons
with other atoms in order to have a complete
set of electrons in their outer energy level.

Reactivity of Elements whose atoms undergo such

Elements processes are called Reactive and can combine
to form compounds.

Since “Groups” [columns] are similar because

they have the same number of electrons in
their outer energy level, the Periodic Table is
also organized by degree of reactivity.
Reactivity of Elements
Reactivity of Elements
In general, Elements located on the left of
the Periodic Table are most reactive
metals, least reactive metals in the middle,
and nonmetals on the right.
What is ionization energy?
Ionization energy

• Ionization energy is the quantity of energy that an isolated, gaseous

atom in the ground electronic state must absorb to discharge an
electron, resulting in a cation.
• H(g)→ H+(g) + e−

• This energy is usually expressed in kJ/mol, or the amount of energy it

takes for all the atoms in a mole to lose one electron each.
Ionization energy
 Ionization Energy

• Group Trend – As you go down a column, ionization

energy decreases.
As you go down, atomic size is increasing (less attraction),
so easier to remove an e-.
• Periodic Trend – As you go across a period (L to R),
ionization energy increases.
As you go L to R, atomic size is decreasing (more
attraction), so more difficult to remove an e-
(also, metals want to lose e-, but nonmetals do not).
Energy to Take Off Several Electrons

How do electron configurations explain

why there is a big change in energy at
the red line?
What effects ionization
energy?
• Ionization energies are dependent on atomic radius.
Going from right to left on the periodic table, the
atomic radius increases, and the ionization energy
increases.
• IE decreases when going down a group.
• In addition to the radius, the valence electron have an effect on the
ionization energy as well.
• This effect, where the full positive charge of the nucleus is not felt by
outer electrons due to the negative charges of inner electrons
partially cancelling out the positive charge, is called shielding.
• The more electrons shielding the outer electron shell from the
nucleus, the less energy required to expel an electron from said
atom. The higher the shielding effect resulted the lower the
ionization energy. It is because of the shielding effect that the
ionization energy decreases from top to bottom within a group.
• With increasing atomic number, the atoms become larger and the
strength of metallic bonding decreases.
• The effect of increasing size evidently outweighs that of increasing
nuclear charge, since the ionization energies decrease from Li to Cs.
The values of IE2 for all the alkali metals are so high that the
formation of M2+ ions under chemically reasonable conditions is not
viable.
• Values of Eo M+/M are related to energy changes accompanying the
processes:
M(s)  M(g) atomization
M(g)  M+(g) ionization
M+ (g)  M+(aq) hydration
• and down group 1, differences in these energy changes almost cancel
out, resulting in similar Eo M+/M values.
Exercises • In group of 3, please select one title and
discuss about the trend of IE
 The general trend in decreasing
values of IE1 and IE2 down the
group is broken by the increase in
going from Ba to Ra, attributed to
the inert pair effect.
Group 2 - IE

High values of IE3 preclude the

formation of M3+ ions.
 • The IEs of Ga, In, and Tl are higher
than the expected trend.
• Reason: The 4s, 5s, and 6s
electrons of these elements are not
Inert pair well shielded from the nucleus by
effect the d and f subshells. These
electrons are more difficult to ionize
because they experience a larger
effective nuclear charge than
expected.
Group 13 - IE

• The value of IE4 for B and Al, refers to the removal of an electron
from a noble gas configuration, this is not the case for the three
later elements; the difference between IE3 and IE4 is not nearly so
large for Ga, In and Tl as for B and Al.
• On going down group 13, the observed discontinuities in values of
IE2 and IE3, and the differences between them, originate in the
failure of the d and f electrons, which have a low screening power
to compensate for the increase in nuclear charge.
 Group 14 - IE
• On descending group 14, the trends in ionization energies reveal two
particular points:
• The relatively large increases between values of IE2 and IE3 for each
element.
• The discontinuities (i.e. increases) in the trends of values of IE3 and
IE4 at Ge and Pb.
• The sums of the first four ionization energies for any element suggest
that it is unlikely that M4+ ions are formed. For example, although
both SnF4 and PbF4 are non-volatile solids, neither has a symmetrical
lattice structure in the solid state.
Group 15 - IE
• Some observations regarding
ionization energies are that:
• They increase rather sharply after
removal of the p electrons;
• They decrease only slightly
between P and As (similar
behaviour to that between Al and
Ga, and between Si and Ge);
• For removal of the s electrons,
there is an increase between Sb
and Bi, just as between In and Tl,
and between Sn and Pb.
Group 17 - IE

• When going down a group, the outer valence electrons are not
near the nucleus, it does not take as much energy to remove them.
Therefore, the energy required to pull off the outermost electron is
not as high for the elements at the bottom of the group since there
are more energy levels.
• The high ionization energy makes the element appear non-metallic.
Iodine and astatine display metallic properties, so ionization
energy decreases down the group (At < I < Br < Cl < F).
Group 18 - IE

The ionization energies of helium, neon, and

argon are very high.

The noble gases have the highest ionization

energies of the elements in their respective
periods, but there is a decrease in values on
descending the group.
 Have you heard
about
electronegativity?
What is
electronegativity?
Electronegativity
• The ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a covalent
bond. The higher the value of the electronegativity, the more
strongly that element attracts the shared electrons.
• The concept of electronegativity was introduced by Linus Pauling in
1932; on the Pauling scale, fluorine is assigned an electronegativity of
3.98, and the other elements are scaled relative to that value.
• Other electronegativity scales include the Mulliken scale, proposed by
Robert S. Mulliken in 1934, in which the first ionization energy and
electron affinity are averaged together, and the Allred-Rochow scale,
which measures the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus of
an atom and its valence electrons.
The higher the value of the electronegativity, the
more strongly that element attracts the shared
electrons.
Trend of electronegativity • Electronegativity increases
from bottom to top in
groups, and increases from
left to right across
periods.
• Fluorine is the most
electronegative element,
while francium is one of
the least electronegative.
• The trends are fairly
regular for the main group
elements.
• Metals have relatively low electronegativities, they tend to lose
electrons in chemical reactions to elements that have relatively
high electronegativities, forming compounds in which they have
positive oxidation states.

Conversely, nonmetals have high electronegativities, and they

therefore tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions to form
compounds in which they have negative oxidation states.
What is electron affinity?
 Electron affinity is defined as the change in
energy (in kJ/mole) of a neutral atom (in the
gaseous phase) when an electron is added to
the atom to form a negative ion.

Electron affinity First Electron Affinity (negative energy because

energy released):
X(g) + e−→X−(g)

Second Electron Affinity (positive energy

because energy needed is more than gained):
X−(g)+e−→X2−(g)
 • Electron affinity is the
Electron affinity ability of an atom to
accept an electron. Unlike
electronegativity, electron
affinity is a quantitative
measurement of the
energy change that occurs
when an electron is added
to a neutral gas atom.
• The more negative the
electron affinity value, the
higher an atom's affinity
for electrons.
Atomic Radius

• Atomic Radius –
size of an atom
(distance from
nucleus to
outermost e-).
 Atomic Radius Trend

• Group Trend – As you go down a group, atomic radius increases.

As you go down, e- are filled into orbitals (energy levels) that are
farther away from the nucleus (attraction not as strong).
• Periodic Trend – As you go across a period (L to R), atomic radius
decreases.
As you go L to R, e- are put into the same energy level, but more p+
and e- total (more attraction = smaller size).
 •Group Trend – As you go
down a group, ionic radius
increases.
Ionic Radius
Trend •Periodic Trend – As you go
across a period (L to R),
ionic radius decreases.
Ionic Radius

•Ionic Radius -
size of an atom
when it is an
ion.
 Ionic Radius Trend
• Metals – lose e-, which means more p+ than e- (more
attraction) SO…
Ionic Radius < Neutral Atomic Radius
• Nonmetals – gain e-, which means more e- than p+
(not as much attraction) SO…
Ionic Radius > Neutral Atomic Radius
 2e

Positive ions (cations) 8e 8e

8e 8e

2e 2e

Formed by loss Ca
Ca Ca+2
of electrons

Cations always
smaller than
parent atom
Negative ions or (anions)

• Formed by gain of
electrons

• Anions always larger

than parent atom
Differences between VDW radius and
covalent radius.
Conclusion