THE PERIODIC TABLE

Ms. Charity Huna B. Fabon - Instructor

The Periodic Table of the elements - is the arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic
number, with elements having similar properties placed in vertical columns.

Historical Development:
1864 – John Newlands. Devised the first Periodic Table of the elements – “law of octaves”
1869 – first developed by Dimitri Mendeleev (Russia) and Lothar Mayer (Germany) on the
basis of the similarity in properties and reactivities exhibited by certain elements.
Expounded the Periodic Table of elements based on increasing atomic weights.
Mendeleev left gaps for elements that had not yet been discovered.
1913 – Henry Moseley (England). Developed the concept of atomic numbers using X-rays; he
identified the atomic number with the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom and
the number of electrons in the atom. He drew up the Periodic Table based on
increasing atomic number.
Modern Periodic Table of the elements has the elements arrange according to increasing
atomic number.

Features of the Modern Periodic Table

MAIN GROUP of elements – those in “A FAMILY”

• IA Alkali metals Li Na K Rb Cs Fr ns1 1 valence e−
• II A Alkaline-earth Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra ns2 2 valence e−
• IIA Boron Family B Al Ga In Ta ns2 np1 3 valence e−
REPRESENTATIVE
• IVA Carbon Family C Si Ge Sn Pb ns2 np2 4 valence e−
ELEMENTS
• VA Nitrogen Family N P As Sb Bi ns2 np3 5 valence e −

• VIA Oxygen Family O S Se Te Po ns2 np4 6 valence e−

• VIIA Halogen Family F Cl Br I At ns2 np5 7 valence e−
• VIIIA Noble (or Rare) Gases He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn ns2 np6 8 valence e−(except He)

When these elements form ions:

• IA, IIA, IIIA metals generally LOSE electrons (the valence electron lost is the same as the Group no.)
• VA VIA VIIA nonmetals tend to GAIN electrons – the no. of electrons these nonmetals gain is (8 − Grp no.)

TRANSITION METALS – the “B FAMILY” ns2 (n − 1)d n>3

• IB Cu Ag Au Rg • VIB Cr Mo W Sg
• IIB Zn Cd Hg Cn • VIIB Mn Tc Re Bh
• IIIB Sc Y La Ac • VIIIB Fe Ru Os Hs
• IVB Ti Zr Hf Rf Co Rh Ir Mt
• VB V Nb Ta Db Ni Pd Pt Ds

LANTHANIDES - the series of 14 elements following lanthanum, La (Z = 57) 4f

• Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu d Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu ns2 (n − 2)f
ACTINIDES – the series of 14 elements following actinium, Ac (Z = 89) 5f
• Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Periodicity and Chemical Bonding

Notes:
1. Only the outermost (valence) electrons – those beyond the noble-gas core – are involved in the
sharing and transfer of electrons that give rise to chemical bonding and reactions.
2. Ionic bonds – electrostatic attraction that exists between ions of opposite charge − cation (from
metals) & anion (from nonmetals)
3. Covalent bonds – results from the sharing of electrons by two (nonmetallic) atoms
a. single bond – sharing of one pair of electrons
b. double bond – sharing of two pairs of electrons
c. triple bond – sharing of three pairs of electrons
d. polar covalent bond – unequal sharing of electrons ; one atom exerts greater
attraction for the electrons than the other (i.e. it is more electronegative); the greater
the difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond
e. nonpolar covalent bond – electrons in the bond are shared equally by the two atoms
4. Metallic bonds – attractive forces that bind together the atoms in metals
5. Lewis symbols – represent the valence electrons of an atom by using electron-dot symbols
6. The tendencies of atoms to lose, or gain, or share their valence electrons until they are surrounded by
eight (8) valence electrons often follow the octet rule: having full ns2 np6 subshells
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PERIODIC PROPERTIES

1. Atomic Size
- the size of the atom can be gauged by its bonding atomic radius, based on measurements of
the distances separating atoms in their chemical combinations with other atoms.
- trend: in general, atomic radii increase as we go down a column in the periodic table and
decrease as we proceed left to right in a row

2. Ionization Energy
- the first ionization energy of an atom is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron
from the atom in the gas phase, forming a cation
- the second ionization energy is the energy needed to remove a second electron from the
atom, and so forth.
- ionization energies show a sharp increase when all the valence electrons have been
removed [i.e., the 2nd (or 3rd or 4th) electron is removed from an ion – species with higher
effective nuclear charge]
- the greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron.
- either increasing the effective nuclear charge or decreasing the distance from the nucleus
increases the attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus; as this attraction
increases, it becomes harder to remove an electron and thus, ionization energy increases.
- trend: in general, 1st ionization energies decrease as we go down a column and increase as
we proceed left to right in a row.

3. Electron Affinity
- the electron affinity of an element is the energy change upon adding an electron to an atom,
forming an anion.
- a negative electron affinity means that the anion is stable; a positive electron affinity means
that the anion is not stable and will not form.
Cl(g) + e− → Cl − (g) ∆E = −349kJ/mol
Ar (g) + e− → Ar − (g) ∆E > 0
- trend: the electron affinity generally becomes increasingly negative as we proceed in each
row (left to right) toward halogens; i.ee., the greater the attraction between a given atom and
an added electron, the more negative the atom’s electron affinity will be.
- electron affinity do not change greatly as we move down a group
- remember: ionization enrgy measures the ease with which an atom LOSES an electron,
whereas electron affinity measures the ease with which an atom GAINS an electron

4. Metallic, Nonmetallic Character

- the tendency of an element to exhibit the properties of metals, called the metallic character,
increases as we proceed down a column and decreases as we proceed from left to right in a
row.
- metals have a characteristic luster, and they are good conductors of heat and electricity;
when metals react with nonmetals, the metal atoms are oxidized to cations and ionic
substances are generally formed; most metal oxides are basic – they react with acids to form
salts and water.
- nonmetals lack metallic luster and are poor conductors of heat and electricity; several are
gases at room temperature; compounds composed entirely of nonmetals are generally
molecular; nonmetals usually form anions in their reactions with metals; nonmetal oxides are
acidic – they react with bases to form salts and water.
- nonmetallic character is the opposite of metallic character: nonmetallic character decreases
as metallic character increases.
- metalloids have properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals.

5. Ionic Size
- the size of an ion depends on its nuclear charge, the number of electrons it possesses, and
the orbitals in which the outer-shell electrons reside.
- cations are smaller than their parent atoms
- anions are larger than their parent atoms.
- for ions of the same charge, size increases as we go down a group
- isoelectronic series of ions – ions having the same number of electrons

6. Electronegativity
- is a numerical measure of the ability of an atom to compete with other atoms for the electrons
shared between them
- trend: electronegativity generally increases from left to right in a row and decreases going
down a column
- the difference in electronegativity can be used to the polarity of the bond.