UNIT 1--Biopotential Electrodes

• Origin of biopotential and its propogation

Electrode- electrolyte interface, electrode skin
interface, half cell potential, contact
impedance, polarization effects of electrode-
non polarizable electrodes, types of electrodes-
surface, needle and micro electrodes and their
equivalent circuit- recording problems- motion
artifacts, measurement with two electrodes
 Origin of biopotential and its
propogation
• Biopotential: Electric signal generated by
physiological process
• Transducer is used to convert ionic potential
into electric signal
• How biopotential is produced?
Produced by electrochemical activity of type
of cell called an excitable cell.
• When excitable cell is • Recordings of
stimulated then it bioelectric potential:
generates an action – Electrocardiogram
potential (ECG)
• Types of excitable cell: – Electroencephalogram
– Afferent neurons (EEG)
– Efferent neurons – Electroneurogram (ENG)
– Effector cells – Electromyogram (EMG)
– Interneurons – Electroretinogram (ERG)
 Cell membrane
• The cell membrane, also
called the plasma
membrane, is found in
all cells and separates
the interior of the cell
from the outside
environment.
• The cell membrane
consists of a lipid
bilayer that is
semipermeable.
• Cell membrane is very
thin (7-15nm)
• Cell membrane acts as
capacitor ie., in between
two plates there will be
flow of ions
• Impermeable : proteins
and other organic anions
• Selectively permeable:
Sodium, potassium and
chlorine ions
Cell membrane potential: Similar to P-N junction:
• Ion concentration • Ion flows due to
difference across diffusion
membrane creates a
diffusion gradient • Diffusion creates a
potential difference
• Gradient causes ions to
flow • Which inhibits further
flow of charged ions.
• Ion flow creates electric
field
• Electric field: opposes
ion flow until an
equilibrium is
established
 Electrical states of excitable cells
Resting state
Acting state
Resting state
• Excitable cells maintain a steady electrical
potential difference between the internal and
external environment [-50 mV to -100mV]
• Slightly permeable: Sodium ions
• Freely permeable: Potassium and Chlorine ions
• Inside the cell it is more negative than outside
cell
• Cell in the resting state is called Polarized cell.
Acting state
• After the resting state membrane change its
characteristics and allow sodium (Na+) ions to
pass through it
• Therefore, the cell has slightly +ve potential on
the inside
• This is known as Action potential.
• The process of changing
from the resting state to
the action potential is
called Depolarization.
 Electrode
• Converts ionic potential into electronic potential.
• Inorder to process the signal in electronic circuits,
it will be better to convert ionic conduction into
electronic conduction
• Types of electrode:
– Polarized
– Non- polarized
– Micro electrode
– Needle electrode
– Body surface
 Half cell potential
• Half-cell potential refers to the potential developed
at the electrode of each half cell in an
electrochemical cell.
Nernst Equation
• The Nernst equation defines the relationship
between cell potential to standard potential and to
the activities of the electrically active
(electroactive) species.
• It relates the effective concentrations (activities)
of the components of a cell reaction to the standard
cell potential
• Ecell = E0cell - (RT/nF)lnQ
Ecell = cell potential under non-standard
conditions (V)
E0cell = cell potential under standard conditions
R = gas constant, which is 8.31
(volt-coulomb)/(mol-K)
T = temperature (kelvin), which is generally 298°
K (77°F/25°C)
n = number of moles of electrons exchanged in the
electrochemical reaction (mol)
F = Faraday's constant, 96500 coulombs/mol
Q = reaction quotient, which is the equilibrium
expression with initial concentrations rather than
equilibrium concentrations
• Skin and other tissues of
human are electrolytic
(electrolytic solution)
• Ions migrate from one
side of the region or
another forming parallel
layers of ions of
opposite charge
• This region is called
electrode double layer.
• Ionic differences are the
source of the electrode
or half-cell potential
 Electrode-Electrolyte interface
• Current crosses from left
to right
• Electrode consists of
metallic atoms C
• Electrolyte is an aqueous
solution containing
cations of the electrode
metal C+ and anions A-.
• Oxidation and reduction
reaction takes place.
 Oxidation reaction Reduction reaction
• Oxidation reaction • Reduction reaction
causes atoms to lose causes atom to gain
electron electron
• Current flow from • Current flow from
electrode to electrolyte electrolyte to electrode
 Electrode-Skin interface
• Transparent electrolyte
gel containing Cl- is
used to maintain good
contact between
electrode and skin.
• A body surface
electrode is placed
against skin
 Contact impedance
• Determines how much How to reduce contact
current can be injected impedance?
into the ground for a • A layer of electrically
given voltage conductive gel is
• Two double layers form applied between the
between the electrode skin and the electrode to
metal conductor reduce contact
• Gel impedance
• Cell membrane of active
skin
 Types of electrode
Polarization electrode Non Polarization
• Polarization is the electrode
change of potential from • Current passes freely
a stabilized state across the
• No actual charge crosses electrode-electrolyte
the electrode- interface, requiring no
electrolyte interface energy to make the
when a current is transition
applied • There are no
• Behaves like a capacitor over-potentials
• Represented as resistor.
 Microelectrode
• Microelectrodes are electrodes having tips
sufficiently small to penetrate a single cell in
order to obtain readings from within the cell.
• Microelectrodes are also known as
intracellular electrode
• Tips must be small enough to permit
penetration without damaging the minute cell
• Function: Potential
recording and current
injection
• Have high impedance in
mega ohm range because
of their small size
• Uses
– Recording of neural signals
– Recording of electrical
simulation of neurons
tissue
• Measure:
– Membrane potential
– Intracellular free ion
concentrations and
cell-to-cell communication
 Types of microelectrode
• Metal microelectrode
• Micropipette
Metal microelectrode:
• Formed by electrolytically etching the tip of fine
tungsten to the desired size and dimension
• Wire is coated almost to the tip with any type of
insulating material
• Metal-ion interface takes place where the metal tip
contacts the electrolyte.
• Few electrolytic processing is
done to reduce the impedance
• Requires 2 electrodes to
measure bioelectric potential
• Resulting potential is the
difference between the
potential of microelectrode and
reference electrode.
E=EA+EB+EC
EA- metal electrode-electrolyte
potential at microelectrode tip
EB- Reference
electrode-electrolyte potential
EC- Variable cell membrane
potential
 Micropipet
• Uses non metallic material to measure the potential
from a single cell
• Consists of glass micropipette of diameter 1mm
• Micropipette filled with electrolyte solution
• Stem of micropipette has a thin flexible wire made
out of chloride silver, stainless steel or tungsten.
• One end of the electrode is attached to the rigid
support othe end rests on the cell
 E=EA+EB+EC+ED
EA- Potential voltage
between the metal wire
and an electrolyte filled
inside micropipette
EB- Potential between the
reference electrode and
extracellular fluid
EC- Variable cell membrane
potential
ED- Potential at the tip due to
electrolytes present inside
the pipette and the cell
 Body Surface Electrode
• A small device that is attached to the skin to
measure or cause electrical activity in the
tissue under it.
• Senses signal from heart, brain and nerves.
• Large surface electrode sense ECG signal.
• Small surface electrode sense EMG, EEG
signal.
Types:
Metal Plate electrode
Suction cup or Welsh cup electrode
Adhesive type electrode
Multipoint type electrode
Floating type electrode
Ear clips and scalp electrode
Metal Plate Electrode:
• ECG measurement requires either rectangular
or circular shaped plate
• Plate made of nickel, silver or german silver
materials
• Has smaller contact area.
• Electrodes are pasted on the skin using
electrolyte paste.
• Suitable for application on four limbs- Limb
electrode
 Disadvantage:
• Electrode clippage
• Plate displacement
• Very sensitive
• Leading to measurement
errors
Suction cup or Welsh cup electrode
• To measure ECG from various
positions on the chest.
• Attached on flat surface of the
body and on soft tissue regions
• Physically they are large but
skin contacts only the electrode
rim.
• High contact impedance
• They have a plastic syringe
barrel, suction tube and cables.
• Due to infection and cleaning
procedures these electrodes are
not used.
 Adhesive type electrode
• Disadvantage of surface electrode:
Pressure of surface electrode
against the skin squeezes out the
electrode paste
• To avoid this problem– adhesive
electrodes are used
• Light weight metallic screen
• Have pad at behind for placing
electrode paste.
• Adhesive backing hold the
electrode on place and tight
• Avoids evaporation of electrolyte
present in the electrode paste
 Multipoint type electrode
• Used in ECG measurement
• More than 1000 active contact points
• Helps to establish low resistance contact with
the human
 Floating electrode
• Major disadvantage of metal plate or limb
electrodes is the measurement errors
• Motion artefact occurs due to the motion at the
interface between electrode and electrolyte
• Interface gets stabilized using floating
electrode
• Floating electrode contact with human surface
via electrolytic paste or jelly
• Mechanical stability is the major advantage
 Ear clip or Scalp electrode
• In measurement of ECG, ear clip electrodes
are used
• Scalp electrodes provide EEG signal easily
when placed on bare head
• In 10-20 electrode system EEG measurement
scalp electrodes are used
• Avoid measurement errors
 Needle electrode
• When electrode gets closer to the bioelectric
generator, it penetrates into the skin
• Therefore the electrode should be sharp for
penetration to obtain and record the bioelectric
events
• Needle electrode records the peripheral nerve
action potential
• Resembles a medicinal syringe
• One end short insulated wire is bent
• Bent portion passes through the lumen of the
needle
• Setup goes into the muscle
• Needle is withdrawn
• Bent wire remains inside the muscle
2 types of needle electrode
Monopolar electrode:
This type uses single reference electrode
placed on the skin
Bi-polar electrode:
This type of electrode has on reference
electrode and one active electrode
Applications:
Measurement of EEG and EMG signal
 Recording problems
• Need of medical • Noise in biomedical
recording recording:
– Better clinical decision Surface electrodes
making involves the
– Proper treatment measurement of small
– Save patient potential difference
noise plays vital role
Output Voltage is not
always accurate
• Biopotential= desired voltage + No. of
unwanted voltages
Desired voltages- signal
Unwanted voltage- noise
• Electrode- Electrolyte noise:
Stability depends upon material and electrode
preparation
Low noise recording of biopotential is done by
silver- silver chloride electrode
• Noise at the electrolyte skin interface
EMG signals and other noise sources will
always contaminate the recording
Increasing the diameter reduces the excess
noise
 Motion artifacts
• Motion artifact is a
patient-based artifact that
occurs with voluntary or
involuntary patient
movement during image
acquisition.
• What causes motion
artifacts?
Motion artifacts are related
to cardiac motion which
are caused by cardiac
pulmonary or body
motion and can cause
blurring or double images.
 How do you reduce motion artifacts?
• Several methods of reducing motion artifacts
are then suggested.
• These include: randomization of views,
averaging views, matching repeat times to the
respiratory period, hybrid imaging, ROPE and
COPE.
• The latter two methods reorder the data
acquisition to destroy the coherence of the
motion.
 Measurement with two electrodes
• Voltage measured is the
difference between the
potential of 2 electrodes
• DC voltage due to the
difference in electrode potential
is called as electrode offset
• 2 electrodes of same material
may also produce small
electrode offset voltage
• Chemical activity takes place
within an electrode can cause
voltage fluctuations to appear
without any physiological input
• Such variations may appear as
noise on bioelectric signal
• Noise can be reduced by proper
choice of materials or by
coating the electrodes to
improve stability
• Electric events inside the
human body cause potential
differences on the skin
• Surface electrodes are mainly
used.
• Converts the potential
differences due to ion flow
inside the human body