The Periodic Table-Key Questions

What is the periodic table ?

What information does the table provide ?
How can one use the periodic table to predict
the properties of the elements?

.1
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
• Mendeleev organized all of the elements into
one comprehensive table.
• Elements were arranged in order of
increasing mass.
• Elements with similar properties were placed
in the same row.

.2
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Mendeleev left some blank spaces in his periodic table.

At the time the elements gallium and germanium were
not known. He predicted their discovery and estimated
their properties. .3
The Three Broad Classes are the Representative,
Transition, & Rare Earth
Main (Representative),
Transition metals,
lanthanides and actinides (rare earth)

.4
Additional Groupings in the Periodic
Table
Nonmetals, Metals, Metalloids, Noble gases

.5
 Periodic Table Expanded View
The Periodic Table can be arranged by
energy sub levels
The s-block is Group IA and & IIA, the p-
block is Group IIIA - VIIIA.
The d-block is the transition metals,
and the f-block are the Lanthanides and
Actinide metals

The way the periodic table usually shown

is a compressed view. The Lanthanides
and actinides (F block) are cut out and
placed at the bottom of the table.

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 Periodic Properties
Elements show gradual changes in certain
physical properties as one moves across a
period or down a group in the periodic table.
These properties repeat after certain
intervals.

Periodic properties
include:
-- Ionization Energy
-- Electronegativity
-- Electron Affinity
-- Atomic Radius
-- Ionic Radius
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 Trends in Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required
to remove an electron from an atom

Metals lose electrons more

easily than nonmetals. Why?
Nonmetals lose electrons
with difficulty. (They tend to
GAIN electrons). Why?
Ionization energy increases
across a period because the
positive charge
increases(where?)
Why?

.14
 Trends in Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is highest
at the top of a group.
Ionization energy decreases as
the atomic size increases. Why?
This results from an effect known
as the Shielding Screening Effect
And…?…create this
effect.

.15
 The Electron Shielding Effect
Electrons
between the
nucleus and
the valence
electrons repel
each other
making the
atom larger.

.16
Ionization Energies are Periodic

.17
 Electronegativity
Electronegativity
is a measure of
the ability of an
atom in a
molecule to
attract electrons
to itself.

This concept was first proposed by Linus

Pauling (1901-1994). He later won the Nobel
Prize for his efforts.
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Periodic Trends:
Electronegativity
In a group: Atoms with fewer
energy levels can attract
electrons better (less shielding).
So, electronegativity increases
UP a group of elements.

In a period: More protons, while

the energy levels are the same,
means atoms can better attract
electrons. So, electronegativity
increases RIGHT in a period of
elements.
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 Trends in Electronegativity

Electronegativity increases across

a period and up a group

.22
Electronegativity

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 Electron Affinity
The electron affinity is defined as the
energy change(kj)
when 1 mole of gaseous negative ion is
formed
from 1 mole of gaseous atoms
and 1 mole of electrons.

X(g) + 1e  X -- (g)
What is the trend in F-I ?
Explain
Fluorine atom has an electronic structure of
1s2 2s2 2p5 It has 9 protons in the nucleus.

The incoming electron enters the 2-level, and is screened

from the nucleus by the two 1s2 electrons.
It therefore feels a net attraction from the nucleus of 7+ (9
protons less the 2 screening electrons).

By contrast, chlorine has the electronic structure

[Ne] 3s2 3p5 It has 17 protons in the nucleus.
The incoming electron feels a net attraction from the
nucleus of 7+ (17 protons less the 10 screening electrons
in the first and second levels).
However, because fluorine is such a small
atom, you are putting the new electron into a
region of space already crowded with
electrons and there is a significant amount
of repulsion.
This repulsion lessens the attraction from
nucleus the incoming electron feels and so
lessens the electron affinity.
A similar reversal of the expected trend happens
between oxygen and sulphur in Group 6. The first
electron affinity of oxygen (-142 kJ mol-1) is smaller
than that of sulphur (-200 kJ mol-1) .
 Which periodic trend is
represented on this diagram?
Explain with an example.
 Relationship between
Electronegativity, IE and EA
Electron Affinities

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 The electron affinity decreases on
descending a group. Because;
The number of energy shells
increases and the electron is faced
with more inter-electron repulsion
(shielding) as it approaches.
 The electron affinity increases
across a period as the atomic
radius gets smaller and the nuclear
charge gets larger.
Electron Affinities Are Periodic
Electron Affinity v Atomic Number

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Atomic
Radius

The radius increases on going down a group.

Because electrons are added further from the
nucleus, there is less attraction. This is due to
additional energy levels and the shielding
effect. Each additional energy level “shields”
the electrons from being pulled in toward the
nucleus.
The radius decreases on going across a
period.
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 Atomic Radius
The radius decreases across a period due to
increase in the positive charge from the
protons.
Each added electron feels a greater and
greater + charge because the protons are
pulling in the same direction, whereas the
electrons are scattered.

Large All values are in Small

nanometers
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Atomic Radius

.40
Trends in Ion Sizes
Radius in pm

.43
 Cations
Cations (positive ions) are smaller
than their corresponding atoms

.44
 Ionic Radius
+ Forming a
Li + , cation.
Li
0.152 nm 0.078 nm
3e and 3p 2e and 3 p

CATIONS are SMALLER than the atoms from

which they come.
The electron/proton attraction has gone UP
and so the radius DECREASES (DOWN)

.45
Ionic Radius for Cations
FACT: Positive
ions or cations
are smaller than
the
corresponding
atoms.
EXPLAIN why
ionic radius
increases from
top to bottom in
group 1. Take
each element
and its ion and
discuss the
reasons. .46
 Anions
Anions (negative ions) are larger
than their corresponding atoms

.47
 Ionic Radius-Anions
-
F 0.064 nm F- 0.133 nm
9e- and 9p+ 10 e- and 9 p+
Forming an anion.
ANIONS are LARGER than the atoms
from which they come.
The electron/proton attraction has gone
DOWN and so size INCREASES.
Trends in ion sizes are the same as atom
sizes.
.48
Ionic Size
Does the size go up or
down when gaining an
electron to form an
anion?

.49
Ionic Radii for Anions
FACT:Negative
ions or anions
are larger than
the
corresponding
atoms.
EXPLAIN Why
Ionic radii
increase from
top to bottom in
group 7. Take
each element
and its ion to
discuss the
trend. .50
Ionic Radius for an
Isoelectronic Group
Isoelectronic
ions have the
same number of
electrons.
Question:
How many
electrons do the
ions have?

Note that;
The more negative
an ion is the larger
it is and vice
versa.
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Properties of the Third Period Oxides
Write balanced chemical equations
of metal oxides and nonmetal
oxides reacting with water
Properties of the Third Period Chlorides

.59
Confirming the precipitate using ammonia
solution

-Ammonia solution is added to the

precipitates.
AgCl dissolves – colourless.
AgBr does not change in dilute ammonia,
but dissolves in concentrated solution-
colourless.
AgI insoluble at any concentration.
HL The D Block Elements
The d block elements
fall between the s
block and the p block.
They share common
characteristics since
the orbitals of d
sublevel of the atom
are being filled.

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 The d Block Elements
The transition metals are those d block elements
with a partially filled d sublevel in one of its
oxidation states.
Since their s and d sublevels have close
amounts in energy,
the d block elements show certain special
characteristics including:
1. Multiple oxidation states
2. The ability to form complex ions
3. Colored compounds
4. Catalytic behavior
5. Magnetic properties
.73
Why do transition metals have
multiple oxidation states?
Chromium and copper have 4s1 instead of
4s2.
This is because chromium is 1 d-electron
short for having a half-filled d-orbital, 
therefore it takes one from the s-orbital, so
the electron configuration for chromium would
just be: [Ar] 4s13d5. 
Similarly, for copper, it is 1 d-electron short for
having a fully-filled d-orbital and takes (?)one
from the s-orbital, so the electron
configuration for copper would simply be: [Ar]
4s13d10. 
Unpaired Electrons of d-orbitals
There are five orbitals in the d subshell
manifold.
•As the number of unpaired valence electrons
increases,
•the d-orbital increases,
•the highest oxidation state increases.
This is because unpaired valence electrons are unstable and
eager to bond with other chemical species.
This means that the oxidation states would be the highest in
the very middle of the transition metal due to the presence
of the highest number of unpaired valence electrons.
To determine the oxidation state, unpaired
d-orbital electrons are added to the 2 of the
s orbital electrons
since the 3d orbital is located before the 4s
orbital in the periodic table.
i.e.Scandium has 1 unpaired electron in the d-orbital.
It is added to the 2 electrons of the s-orbital and
therefore the oxidation state is +3.
So that would mathematically look like:
2s electrons + 1d electron = 3 total electrons =
oxidation state of +3.
Highest Oxidation State for a Transition metal = Number of
Unpaired d-electrons + Two s-orbital electrons
 The D Block Elements
The d electrons are close in energy to the s electrons.
d block elements may lose 1 or more d electrons as well as s electrons. Hence they often have multiple oxidation states
Iron has 4 unpaired electrons and 2 paired electrons. 

To find one of its oxidation states, we can use the formula:

Oxidation State of Fe = 4 + 2 = +6
Indeed, +6 is one of the oxidation states of iron, but it is very rare. Other possible oxidation states for iron includes: +5, +4, +3, and +2.

.79
 Complex Ions
The ions of the d block and the lower p block
have unfilled d or s orbitals.
These orbitals can accept electrons of either an
ion or polar molecule, to form a dative bond.
This attraction results in the formation of a
complex ion.
A complex ion is made up of two or more ions or
polar molecules joined together.
The molecules or ions that surround the metal
ion donating the electrons to form the complex
ion are called ligands.

.81
How do we determine the
charge of the complex ions?
In the complex ion at the left there are six
water molecules bonded to the central
cobalt ion in an octahedral arrangement.
The cobalt ion has a charge (oxidation
state) of 3+.
The water molecules are all neutral, so the
overall charge on the complex ion is (3+ )+
0 = 3+
The formula of the complex is written
[Co(H2O)6]3+
The hexaamminenickel(II) ion at the right
has six ammonia molecules surrounding
the central nickel 2+ ion in an octahedral
arrangement.
The nickel ion has an oxidation state of 2+
and each of the ammonia molecules is
neutral, so the overall charge on the
complex ion is: (2+) + 0 = 2+
The formula is written as [Ni(NH3)6]2+
In the complex ion at the left there are four
chloride ions bonded to the central copper
ion in an tetrahedral arrangement.
The copper ion has a charge (oxidation
state) of 2+. The chloride ions all have a
charge of 1-, so the overall charge on the
complex ion is (2+) + 4(1-) = 2-
The formula of the complex is written
[CuCl4]2-. There is no need for brackets
around the chloride ions.
What is a coordination compound?
Give examples
 Complex Ions
Compounds that are formed with
complex ions are called coordination
compounds
Common ligands

Complex ions usually have either 4 or 6

ligands.
K3Fe(CN)6 Cu(NH3)42+
 How does the complex ion
formation effect the metal ?
 Complex Ions
The formation of complex ions stabilizes
the oxidations states of the metal ion
and they also affect the solubility of the
complex ion.

The formation of a
complex ion often has
a major effect on the
color of the solution of
a metal ion.

.94
What are the factors that the
colours of the transition
metals depend on?
 The D Block Colored Compounds
In an isolated atom all of the d sublevel electrons
have the same energy.
When an atom is surrounded by charged ions or polar
molecules, the electric field from these ions or
molecules has a unequal effect on the energies of the
various d orbitals and d electrons.
The colors of the ions and complex ions of d block
elements depends on a variety of factors including:
– The particular element
– The oxidation state
– The kind of ligands bound to the element

Various oxidation
states of Nickel
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 Colors in the d Block
The presence of a partially filled d sublevels in a
transition element results in colored compounds.
Elements with completely full or completely empty
subshells are colorless,
– For example Zinc which has a full d subshell. Its
compounds are white
A transition metal ion exhibits color, if it absorbs
light in the visible range (400-700
nanometers)
If the compound absorbs a
particular wavelengths of light, its
color is the composite of those
wavelengths that it does not absorb.
It shows the complimentary color.
.97
A coloured solution is caused by the
white light passing through it and losing
some of its wavelengths by absorption.
If the solution appears blue it means
that the complementary colours are
absorbed by the solution.
In the complementary colour cylinder;
when one colour is absorbed; the colour
which is opposite of it, is seen.
For example, absorption of red light would
lead the turquoise (cyan) colour showing.
 Colors and d Electron Transitions
The d orbitals may split into two groups so that two
orbitals are at a lower energy than the other three
The difference in energy of these orbitals varies slightly
with the nature of the ligand or ion surrounding the
metal ion

When white light passes through a compound of a

transition metal, light of a particular frequency is
absorbed as an electron is promoted from a lower
energy d orbital to a higher one.
When the energy of the transition: ∆E =h may occur in
the visible region, the compound is colored
.
 magnetism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u36Qp
PvEh2c&feature=youtu.be
Catalytic converters
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_cont
inue=5&v=rmtFp-SV0tY
Magnetic Properties
Paramagnetism --- Molecules with
one or more unpaired electrons are
attracted to a magnetic field.

The more unpaired electrons in the

molecule the stronger the attraction.
This type of behavior is called
paramagnetism.

Diamagnetism ---
Substances with no unpaired
electrons are unaffected by a
magnetic field.

.
Catalytic Behavior
Many d block elements are
catalysts for various
reactions

Catalysts are chemical

substances which speed
up the rate of a chemical
reaction with out being
consumed.

.
Some Common d Block Catalysts
Examples of d block elements that are
used as catalysts:
1. Platinum or
rhodium is used in a
catalytic converter
2. MnO2 catalyzes the
decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide
3. V2O5 is a catalyst for
the contact process
4. Fe in Haber process
5. Ni in conversion of
alkenes to alkanes .