Ministry of Higher Education And

Scientific Research

Al-Hadi University College

Radiology department

Urinary tract imaging techniques

A project submitted to the radiology department in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.Sc. in
Radiology Techniques

By
Safaaaldin Ahmed Sultan

Shams Al-Aseel Ali Ghadban

Bilal Ibrahim Farhan

Supervised by

Dr.Hayder Adnan Sadeq

M.B.Ch.B,M.Sc.Radiodignosis

2022-2023
 ‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫ين (‪َ )79‬وِإ َذا‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ْ‬

‫س‬ ‫َ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫و‬
‫َ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ن‬ ‫م‬
‫ُ‬ ‫ع‬
‫ِ‬ ‫ْ‬
‫ُط‬ ‫ي‬ ‫و‬
‫َ‬ ‫ُ‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ذ‬
‫ِ‬ ‫َّ‬ ‫َوال‬
‫ين (‪َ )80‬والَّ ِذي يُ ِميتُنِي ثُ َّم‬ ‫ت فَهُ َو يَ ْشفِ ِ‬ ‫َم ِرضْ ُ‬
‫ين (‪)81‬‬ ‫يُحْ يِ ِ‬
‫سورة الشعراء‬
 Dedication
We dedicate the fruits of our humble efforts in preparing this
research for all who encourage and sustain us especially my beloved
mother and our instructors in the college especially the supervisor assist
Dr. Hayder Adnan Sadeq

for the exceptional efforts, and the valuable directions and advices to

cope with the latest development in the field of our specialization

occurs in the world

The researchers
 Recognition and
appreciation

We thank Almighty Allah who enabled us

completing this scientific research and inspiring us with
determination and perseverance.
We present our sincere recognition and appreciation to
the supervising professor, Dr. Hayder Adnan Sadeq, for
all the valuable instruction and information provided us
in sustaining the our study topic in its various aspects.
Radiology in the Department of medical city also we
present our appreciation and recognition to our
respected discussing committee members , to our
instructors, especially the consultant Dr.Mudhafar Bali
Specialization in Diagnostic Radiology and consultant
Dr. Hayder Abdulameir Ghayadh, Director of the
Radiology Institute at the medical city office.
LIST OF CONTENTS

Titles Pages

Chapter one ......Introduction 1-4

Chapter Two.......... Aim of work 5-6

Chapter Three........ Literature Review 7-19

Chapter four..............practical cases 20-31

Chapter five............. Summary and conclusion 31-32

Chapter six- .................References 32-33

Chapter One
Introduction

(1)
1. Introduction

The Urinary system tract is your body’s drainage system for removing wastes and
extra fluids. The urinary tract includes two kidneys, two ureters, a bladder, and
a urethra.

The kidneys filter wastes and fluids to produce urine. The urine travels from the
kidneys down two narrow tubes called the ureters. The urine is then stored in a
hollow, muscular, balloon-shaped organ called the bladder. When the bladder
empties, urine flows out of the body through a tube called the urethra at the bottom
of the bladder.

All parts of the urinary tract—the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra—must
work together to urinate normally.

Imaging is a general term for techniques used to create pictures. In medicine,

imaging produces pictures of bones, organs, and vessels inside the body. Imaging
helps health care professionals see the cause of medical problems. Imaging
techniques include:-

● X-rays NIH external link

● Ultrasounds NIH external link
● Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans NIH external link
● Computed tomography (CT) scans NIH external link

(2)
 Imaging could be required for symptoms such as:-

● Difficulty initiating or maintaining urination

● Difficulty in emptying the bladder, known as urinary retention
● Accidental leakage of urine, known as bladder control problems or urinary
incontinence
● Urinary frequency and urgency (day or night)
● Recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs)
● A single UTI in a susceptible or high-risk person, such as an infant
● Pain in the abdomen, upper or lower back, or groin
● Abdominal pain or mass, such as swelling in a specific part of the abdomen
● Evidence of kidney failure
● Blood in the urine, known as hematuria
● High blood pressure NIH external link
Your health care professional might also order urinary tract imaging to
pinpoint a problem. That’s important because different urinary tract
problems may share the same symptoms. For example, a urinary blockage
can be caused by a kidney stone or an enlarged prostate.

Imaging can also help your health care professional identify, evaluate,
follow up, and monitor problems such as

● Kidney diseases
● Tumors
● Small bladder capacity
● Backward flow of urine, known as vesicoureteral reflux (VUR)
● Hydronephrosis, or urine blockage, in new born following suspicious or
abnormal imaging during the pregnancy

Before ordering imaging tests, your health care professional will consider your
general medical history, including any major illnesses or surgeries, perform a
physical exam, obtain blood test results, and may ask

● About your specific urinary tract symptoms, when they began, how often
they occur, and how severe they are
● If you take any prescription or over-the-counter medicines
(3)
 ● How much fluid you take in each day
● About your use of alcohol and caffeine
● Whether you are allergic to any foods or medicines
● Whether you could be pregnant, if you are a female patient

Your health care professional can use several different imaging techniques,
depending on factors such as your general medical history and urinary tract
symptoms.

(4)
Chapter Two
Aim of work

(5)
2. Aim of work:

To review and highlight the role of different imaging modalities in diagnosis of

urinary tract pathologies.

(6)
Chapter Three
Review of literature

(7)
 3. Literature Review
3.1 Anatomy of urinary tract
It is the group of organs that make, store and excrete urine.Urinary system
consisted of :-

1-Kidneys
2-Ureters

3-Bladder

4-Urethra

1-Kidneys

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs located on the left and right in the

retroperitoneal space.

:- The kidneys consist of -

1-Renal capsule

2-Renal cortex

3-Renal medulla

4-Renal Calyx

5-Renal Pelvis

2- Ureters
• The ureters are tubes made of smooth muscle

fibers that push the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

• In the human adult, the ureters are usually 2 around 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) in
diameter

(8)
3- Bladder

The urinary bladder or simply bladder is a hollow muscular organ in humans

that collects and stores urine from the kidneys before removal by urination.

. The bladder is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, that sits on the
pelvic base.

. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.

. The typical human bladder will hold between 300 and 500 ml.

4- Urethra
The urethra is a thin, fibromuscular tube that begins at the lower opening of the

bladder and extends through the pelvic and urogenital diaphragms to the outside

of the body, called the external urethral opening

3.2 Technique

3.2.1.ULTRASOUND

The most common indication for a point-of-care ultrasound (PoC US) of the
urinary tract in the emergency department (ED) is flank pain, responsible for
approximately 2 million ED visits in the United States annually. About 20% of
patients presenting with flank pain have nephrolithiasis .

Anatomy and Physiology

(9)
 The kidneys are located in the retroperitoneum between the 12th thoracic
and fourth lumbar vertebrae. The right kidney is more inferior than the left due to
the position of the liver. Grossly, the kidneys consist of a cortex, medulla, and hilum.
On ultrasound, the cortex is homogeneous and should be isoechoic relative to the
liver parenchyma. The medullary pyramids appear as hypoechoic triangular
structures with intervening tissue that is contiguous with the cortex. The central
collecting system is formed of small minor and major calyces that are buried within
the hyperechoic fat of the renal pelvis when no obstruction is present. At the renal
pelvis, the ureters (also indistinguishable in the absence of obstruction) travel
slightly medially and inferiorly in the retroperitoneal space. Distally, the ureters
enter the posterior-inferior aspect of the bladder at the ureterovesical junctions
(UVJs). Occasionally, the UVJs can be seen in a transverse view of the bladder as
“humps” that protrude into the bladder lumen bilaterally from the posterior wall. In
this view, the bladder appears rectangular, contains anechoic urine, and is just
superior to the pubic symphysis. In a sagittal plane, the bladder appears more
triangular.

Indications

1- Ureteral Obstruction

The most common indication for PoC US of the urinary system in the ED is
concern for ureteral obstruction caused by nephrolithiasis. Patients classically
present with sudden-onset, unilateral, colicky flank pain that may radiate anteriorly
or to the groin, often with microscopic or gross hematuria, nausea, and vomiting.

2- Urinary Retention

Suspicion of urinary retention can be confirmed via ultrasound of the bladder.

In the transverse plane, the width (W) and anterior-posterior dimension (depth
[D]) are measured in centimeters at their largest point. In the sagittal plane, the
largest superior-inferior dimension (height [H]) is measured. Bladder volume in
milliliters can then be calculated with a correction factor as follows: Volume (mL) =
0.75 x W x D x H.

3-Foley Placement

Ultrasound can be used to confirm correct placement of a Foley in cases of

urinary retention by visualizing the hyperechoic surface of the catheter balloon
(10)
within the lumen. It may also be used to guide Foley placement in cases of
challenging transurethral catheterization, especially in men.

Contraindications

There are no absolute contraindications to abdominal and pelvic ultrasound.

Equipment

Abdominal and pelvic ultrasound should be performed with a low frequency

(1 to 5 MHz) curvilinear transducer to allow visualization of deep structures.

Preparation

The patient should be lying completely supine on a stretcher with his or her

abdomen fully exposed. Towels should be tucked around the patient’s beltline and
shirt or gown to keep them free of gel. For right-handed operators, the ultrasound
machine should be situated to the patient’s anatomic right, plugged in, and
powered. Room lights should be dimmed if possible.

Technique

A low-frequency curvilinear transducer is optimal for an abdominal and pelvic

ultrasound to allow visualization of deep structures. A phased array transducer may
also be used if the curvilinear is not available. The ultrasound machine setting
should be set to "Abdominal."

Complications

Abdominal and pelvic ultrasound, like most diagnostic ultrasound

applications, has minimal to no associated risks and complications. There may be
some patient discomfort due to pressure applied with the transducer during the
exam. The gel can also feel cool and should be completely removed using a clean,
dry towel when the exam is complete.

(11)
 3.2.2 Computed Tomography(CT) of urinary tract

1. Standard CT urography consists of unenhanced, nephrographic, and pyelographic

phases.
2. CT urography is an excellent technique for the evaluation of urinary tract calculi
and renal masses, having high sensitivity and specificity for both conditions because
it facilitates multiplanar imaging of the urinary system.
3. Compression, an IV saline bolus, and diuretics have been used to optimize ureter-
ic distention with variable results.
4. Whether CT urography should replace excretory urography in the evaluation of
he- maturia remains controversial. Definitive resolution of this question is limited by
a lack of randomized studies.
The European Society of Urogenital Radiology defines CT urography as a
diagnostic examination optimized for imaging the kidneys, ureters, and bladder with
thin-slice MDCT, IV administration of contrast medium, and image acquisition in the
excretory phase [1]. CT urography resembles excretory urography in that the
examinations consist of unenhanced, nephrographic, and pyelographic phases [2].
CT urographic protocols are being refined, and efforts are being focused on
optimization of radiation exposure and urothelial imaging. This review describes the
current status of CT urography as a standalone imaging study in the evaluation of
hematuria.
Imaging Technique
Radiologists have used the imaging techniques of excretory urography to
develop CT urographic protocols. A typical CT urographic protocol has three phases
that allow complete evaluation for the most common urologic causes of hematuria,
that is, calculi, renal masses, and urothelial tumors (Fig. 1). After an initial
unenhanced acquisition,

(12)
Fig. 1—36-year-old man with right renal colic due to distal ureteric calculus. Imaging
of pelvis was performed with patient prone to ascertain whether stone was in distal
ureter or in bladder. Because of its size (< 3 mm), stone should pass spontaneously.
A, Unenhanced pelvic CT urogram shows calculus (arrow) in region of vesicoureteric
junction on right. B, Sagittal reconstruction of unenhanced CT urogram confirms that
calculus (arrowhead) is not in dependent portion of bladder and is therefore in distal
ureter, not in bladder.

Nephrographic phase images are acquired 90–100 seconds after administration

of a nonionic contrast agent (100–150 mL of 300 mg I/mL at 2–4 mL/s) [3]. Imaging
(2.5- to 5-mm slice thickness) is typically confined to the kidneys during this phase.
Nephro- graphic phase imaging has the highest sensitivity in the detection of renal
masses, and correlation with unenhanced images is required to show unequivocal
enhancement. Pyelographic phase images are acquired 5–15 minutes after contrast
administration to evaluate the urothelium from the kidneys to the bladder (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2—52-year-old man with renal cysts. Coronal reformation of pyelographic phase
CT urogram shows multiple bilateral parapelvic renal cysts (arrows).

Malignant urologic tumors, such as renal cell carcinoma and transitional cell
carci- noma, are potentially detectable during un- enhanced imaging examinations.
(13)
Renal cell carcinoma and transitional cell carcinoma typically appear solid on
unenhanced images and have higher attenuation (5–30 HU) than urine [7]. Possible
malignant tumors are further characterized with contrast-enhanced CT urography.
Malignant renal and urothelial tumors both exhibit early enhancement and washout
after IV contrast administration, which assists in characterization [8]. Because of this
property, an enhancing urothelial lesion can be detected in the nephrographic
phase, in which urine has low attenuation (Fig. 4). Greater than 10 HU lesion
enhancement compared with the findings on unen-
Fig. 4—68 year-old man with transitional cell carcinoma of bladder and congenital

absence of left kidney. Heterogeneous lymph node mass is present on right side.
A, CT scan through pelvis shows soft-tissue mass (arrowhead) in bladder that
contrasts with low- attenuation urine in bladder.
B, Nephrographic phase CT urogram shows soft- tissue mass (arrow) to left of
midline near dome of bladder and absence of left kidney.

Advantages of CT Urography
Three-dimensional reformations with coronal and sagittal maximum intensity
projections of the kidneys and urinary collecting systems facilitate thorough
examination for renal and urothelial malignancy. The advantages of unenhanced CT
over excretory urography in the detection of urinary tract calculi are well
established. Reports have shown sensitivity ranging from 98% to 100% and
specificity of 92–100% for unenhanced CT in the detection of urinary tract calculi [4].
Unlike excretory urography, CT for the evaluation of urinary tract calculi (stone
proto- col) does not require IV contrast administration in most circumstances, and
the risk of nephrotoxicity associated with excretory urography is therefore
eliminated.
It is widely accepted that CT urography outperforms ultrasound, excretory urog-
raphy, and radiography in the evaluation of renal parenchymal masses and urinary
tract calculi. Study results [10] suggest that CT urography has excellent sensitivity
(89– 100%) and specificity in the detection of pelvicaliceal and ureteric transitional
cell carcinoma. Data have prompted investigators in the field to conclude that CT
urography is more sensitive and specific than excretory urography in the detection

(14)
of urothelial tumors. It has been suggested [1] that CT urography be performed as a
first-line technique in the evaluation of hematuria when the risk of disease
outweighs the risk of radiation exposure, as in the care of patients at high risk of
urologic cancer.
The debate continues, however. A 2006 systematic review [11] of diagnostic
tests and algorithms used for investigating hematuria concluded that the available
evidence was insufficient to draw
firm conclusions about the diagnostic accuracy of imaging studies in determining the
cause of hematuria.

3.2.3 MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING(MRI) of the urinary tract

Introduction

Investigates how MR imaging has become one of the essential modalities for
evaluating the urinary tract, especially by providing exquisite and unique soft tissue
contrast and allowing accurate assessment of a wide range of pathology. Existing
and emerging applications, including renal mass characterization, evaluation of the
collecting systems and bladder, staging of malignancies, depiction of anomalies of
the urinary system, MR angiography, are discussed, along with its use for guidance
of percutaneous tumour ablation and post-procedural follow-up. Functional MR
nephron-urography as a developing technique combining structural and functional
data within a single examination is also discussed, along with the use of multi-coil
array body surface coils to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and obtain high-
resolution images.

MR Urography
MRU is performed by pursuing two different imaging strategies. On the one
hand, heavily T2-weighted turbo spin-echo sequences are employed for obtaining
unenhanced static-water images of the urinary tract. On the other, the T1-weighted
MRU technique imitates conventional intravenous pyelography and is, therefore,
referred to as excretory MR urography. For this reason, a gadolinium contrast agent
is injected intravenously and, after its renal excretion, the gadolinium-enhanced
urine is imaged with fast T1-weighted gradient-echo sequences. Use of these two

(15)
techniques, either individually or in combination, permits investigation of all
relevant aspects in the diagnosis of urinary tract disease.

Although MR imaging is not recommended during the first trimester and use of
contrast material is not recommended in pregnant patients, fast MR imaging is
useful in various obstetric settings and can provide more specific information with
excellent tissue contrast and multiplanar views. In pregnant patients with
hydronephrosis, MRU can demonstrate the site of obstruction and the cause (e.g., a
ureteral stone. A report on the application of standard 2D-FT (fiber tracking) MR
combined with RARE (rapid acquisition with relaxation enhancement) - MRU in a
pregnant woman with right sided abdominal pain, dilated upper urinary tract and
possible stone or inflammatory disease. This technique visualized the complete
obstructed ureter in relation to the surrounding organs (uterus, vessels), allows
precise diagnosis of the cause of the obstruction and avoids ionizing.

In a study with 74 patients, fast 3D gradient echo type echo planar imaging
(GRE EPI) sequences improve the clinical practicability of excretory MRU especially
in old or critically ill patients unable to suspend breathing for more than 20 second.
Susceptibility effects were more pronounced on GRE-EPI MRU and calculi measured
0.8-21.7% greater in diameter compared with conventional GRE .
If you are scheduled for an MR urography exam, you may be asked to wear a gown
during the exam or you may be allowed to wear your own clothing if it is loose-
fitting and has no metal fasteners.

In order to distend your urinary bladder, you may be asked to drink water prior
to the examination, and also not to urinate until after the scan is complete.
However, guidelines about eating and drinking before an MRI exam vary with the
specific exam and also with the facility. For some types of exams, you will be asked
to fast for eight to 12 hours. Unless you are told otherwise, you may follow your
regular daily routine and take medications as usual.

If you are scheduled to undergo MR urography, you may have contrast material
injected intravenously for the exam. The radiologist or technologist may ask if you
have asthma or allergies of any kind, such as an allergy to gadolinium drugs, certain
foods or the environment.

The radiologist should also know if you have any serious health problems or if
you have recently had surgery. Some conditions, such as severe kidney disease, may
(16)
prevent you from being given gadolinium for an MRI. If there is a history of severe
kidney disease, it may be necessary to perform a blood test to determine whether
the kidneys are functioning adequately.

Women should always tell their doctor and technologist if they are pregnant.
MRI has been used since the 1980s with no reports of any ill effects on pregnant
women or their unborn babies. However, the baby will be in a strong magnetic field.
Therefore, pregnant women should not have an MRI in the first trimester unless the
benefit of the exam clearly outweighs any potential risks. Pregnant women should
not receive gadolinium contrast unless absolutely necessary. See the MRI Safety
During Pregnancy
patient preparations

If you have claustrophobia (fear of enclosed spaces) or anxiety, ask your doctor
to prescribe a mild sedative prior to the date of your exam.

With advance notice and planning, some medical centers can provide conscious
sedation for patients with claustrophobia. Patients will typically need to avoid eating
for six hours and drinking for two hours prior to sedation. Consult with your
referring physician and imaging center if conscious sedation may be required.

Leave all jewelry and other accessories at home or remove them prior to the MRI
scan. Metal and electronic items are not allowed in the exam room. They can
interfere with the magnetic field of the MRI unit, cause burns, or become harmful
projectiles. These items include:
jewelry, watches, credit cards, and hearing aids, all of which can be damaged

pins, hairpins, metal zippers, and similar metallic items, which can distort MRI
images, removable dental work pens, pocketknives, and eyeglasses

body piercings mobile phones, electronic watches, and tracking devices.

3.2.4 Intravenous urography (IVU)

Intravenous urography (IVU), also referred to as intravenous pyelography

(IVP) or excretory urography (EU), is a radiographic study of the renal parenchyma,

(17)
pelvicalyceal system, ureters and the urinary bladder. This exam has been largely
replaced by CT urography. 

Terminology

Some prefer the term "urogram" to refer to visualisation of the kidney parenchyma,
calyces, and pelvis after intravenous injection of contrast, and reserve the term
"pyelogram" to retrograde studies involving the collecting system. In practice, both
terms are often used interchangeably.

Procedure

Indications

1-Check for normal function of kidneys.

2- Check for anatomical variants or congenital anomalies (e.g. horse-shoe kidney).

3- Check the course of the ureters.

3- Detect and localise a ureteric obstruction (urolithiasis).

4- Assess for synchronous upper tract disease in those with bladder transitional cell
carcinoma (TCC).

Patient preparation

1- Overnight fasting prior to the date of examination; a laxative would help to

achieve a good preparation.

2- On the day of the procedure take a scout/pilot film to check patient preparation
and also for radiopaque calculi.

3- Check serum creatinine level to be within the normal range (as per hospital
guidelines)

4- Take a history of the patient for any known drug allergies followed by written
informed consent for the procedure.

Technique

(18)
 Exposures are generally in the 65-75 kV range, mA of 600-1000, with exposure
of <0.1 sec. Higher kV ranges reduce contrast of the renal parenchyma.

1- IV access is required for administration of a water-soluble contrast

2- Nonionic contrast is preferred

3- Dose will vary as per the weight of the patient; generally up to 1.5 ml/kg body
weight is well tolerated by patient

4- The contrast dose is usually instilled at a fast (bolus) rate

5- The calyces are usually visualised in <2 minutes following contrast administration
- this is the nephrogram

6-Serial images are taken at 5-20 minutes for visualisation of the pelvicalyceal
systems and ureters when required and with operator preference

7-Additional views taken are prone and obliques for ureters

8-The full length 10-15 minute film is performed with a compression band applied to
the patient

compression should not be applied if ureteral calculi, ureteral obstruction, recent

surgery, nephrostomy, or abdominal aortic aneurysm is suspected

9- Lastly take a full bladder and post-void film

There is a wide variation in protocols. One protocol is suggested below, but

additional images should usually be obtained to answer the clinical question:

1-Scout images

2- Nephrogram (1-2 minutes)

3- Early and late images of the upper collecting system (abdominal compression
then applied) (>3 minutes)

4- Tomography may be obtained, if desired

5- Supine, after release of compression, images of the upper collecting system and
proximal ureters (10-15 minutes)

(19)
6- Supine image (20 minutes)

7- Prone image (20 minutes)

Emergency medications and emergency equipment must always be available in case

the patient has a reaction to contrast.

Chapter four
(20)
 Practical cases

Case1

(21)
Intravenous pyelography (IVP) of Female 12 years With Rt. PUJ Obstruction

Case2

(22)
Non contrast abdominal CT axial section shows left renal stone 10 x 13mm with
PCS dilatation

Case3

(23)
 a b

a. Non contrast abdominal CT axial section shows left renal staghorn stone b.
coronal 3d CT showing the same finding

Case4

(24)
contrast enhanced abdominal CT coronal sections shows left renal simple cortical
cyst in the upper pole

Case 5

(25)
Intravenous pyelography (IVP) showing left hydrouretronephrosis

Case 6

(26)
Intravenous urography ( I V U) of a Child 1 y and 3 months

Left kidney : significantly delayed and faint excretion of contrast   ,   severe PCS
and ureteric dilatation  down to the urinary bladder   , tortuous ureter  ....... DX :
severe VU reflux .

Case 7

(27)
Inter venues urography ( I V U)

Male old age 45 years

Horse-shoe kidney , no opaque stones   , moderate  degree left sided PCS 

dilatation , no ureteric dilatation ...... DX : horse-shoe kidney  with left sided PUJ
obstruction .

(28)
Case 8

Retrograde ( antegrade) urethrography  :

Male old age 64 years

mild narrowing of the proximal bulbar portion  , no significant hold-up against

contrast passage  ........mild urethral stricture  .

(29)
Case 9

MRI for renal system

Male young age 33 years

   Fat suppression , pre and post iv contrast   : large heterogeneously  enhancing  

mass  involving the mid and lower parts of left kidney    , which invading the
overlying peri-nephric fat ,,,,,,,, renal cell carcinoma .

(30)
 Chapter five
Summary and conclusion

(31)
5. Summary and Conclusion

The pace of innovation in diagnostic radiology has increased exponentially, in

tandem with computer advances and the rapid evolution of microprocessing power.
Imaging of the urinary tract, as a result, has become more flexible and precise, with
new procedures offering a great selection of options, and new imaging algorithms
being implemented. Ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) provide higher soft-tissue contrast resolution than
conventional radiography, as well as multiplanar imaging capability, resulting in
significant advances in almost all areas of uroradiology.

(32)
Chapter Six
References

(33)
References

1. Body, V. (no date) Urinary system structures, Visible Body Learn Anatomy.
Available at: https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/urinary/urinary-system-
structures (Accessed: December 7, 2022).
2. CT urography - ajronline.org (no date). Available at:
https://www.ajronline.org/doi/pdfplus/10.2214/AJR.10.4198 (Accessed:
December 21, 2022). 
3. Hiorns, M.P. (2011) Imaging of the urinary tract: The role of CT and MRI,
Pediatric nephrology (Berlin, Germany). U.S. National Library of
Medicine. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2991216/ (Accessed:
December 24, 2022).
4. Home - books - NCBI National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S.
National Library of Medicine. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books (Accessed: December 9, 2022).
5. Niknejad, M. (2022) Intravenous urography: Radiology reference article,
Radiopaedia Blog RSS. Radiopaedia.org. Available at:
https://radiopaedia.org/articles/intravenous-urography (Accessed:
December 22, 2022).
6. Radiological Society of North America (RSNA) and American College of
Radiology (ACR) (no date) Urography, Radiologyinfo.org. Available at:
https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/urography (Accessed: December 24,
2022).
7. Urinary tract imaging  (no date) National Institute of Diabetes and
Digestive and Kidney Diseases. U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services. Available at:
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diagnostic-tests/urinary-
tract-imaging (Accessed: December 6, 2022). 

(34)
(35)
 ‫وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي‬
‫كلية الهادي الجامعة‬
‫قسم تقنيات االشعة والسونار‬

‫تقنيات تصوير‪ H‬الجهاز البولي‬

‫مشروع تخرج مقدم الى قسم تقنيات األشعة و السونار كجزء من متطلبات الحصول على درجة‬
‫البكالوريوس في تقنيات االشعة و السونار‬

‫أعــــداد‬
‫صفاء الدين أحمد سلطان‬
‫شمس األصيل علي غضبان‬
‫بالل ابراهيم فرحان‬

‫بإشـــراف‬

‫د ‪ .‬حــيدر عـدنــان صـــادق‬

‫طبيب اختصاص اشعة تشخيصية و سونار‬

‫‪2022-2023‬‬

‫)‪(1‬‬