CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

Part I Basics of Rules of Grammar

1. Words
2. Phrases
3. Clauses
4. Sentences
5. Clauses
6. Sentences
7. Antonyms
8. Synonyms
9. Homonyms
10. Short Forms
11. Demonstratives
Part II Parts of Speech
1. Nouns
2. Pronouns
3. Adjectives
4. Determiners
5. Verbs
6. Subject-Verb Agreement
7. Adverbs
8. Prepositions
9. Conjunctions
10. Interjections
Part III Others
1. Tenses
2. Anaphora
3. Dangling Modifiers
4. Exaggeration
5. Infinitives
6. Transitions
CONTENTS

1. Words
1.1. Phrases
1.2. Clauses
1.3. Sentences
1.4. Word Classes
2. Phrases
2.1. Noun Phrases
2.2. Verb Phrases
2.3. Gerund Phrases
2.4. Infinitive Phrases
2.5. Appositive Phrases
2.6. Participial Phrases
2.7. Prepositional Phrases
2.8. Absolute Phrases
3. Clauses
3.1. Main clause
3.2. Subordinate clause
3.3. Conditional clause
3.4. Relative clause
3.5. Using relative clauses
3.6. Restrictive relative clause
3.7. Non-restrictive relative clause
4. Sentences
4.1. Simple sentence
4.2. Compound sentence
4.3. Complex sentence
4.4. Compound-complex sentence
4.5. Declarative sentences
4.6. Interrogative sentences
4.7. Imperative sentences
4.8. Exclamatory sentences
5. Antonyms
6. Synonyms
7. Homonyms
8. Nouns
8.1. Common & Proper Nouns
8.2. Nouns of Address
8.3. Concrete & Abstract Nouns
8.4. Countable and Uncountable Nouns
8.5. Collective Nouns
8.6. Compound Nouns
8.7. Singular and Plural Nouns
8.8. Nominalization (Creating Nouns)
9. Pronouns
9.1. Personal Pronoun
9.1.1. Number
9.1.2. Person(First person, Second person, Third person)
9.1.3. Gender
 9.1.4. Case
9.1.5. Reflexive
9.2. Intensive Pronouns
9.3. Indefinite Pronouns
9.4. Possessive Pronouns
9.5. Demonstrative Pronouns
9.6. Interrogative Pronouns
9.7. Relative Pronouns
9.8. Reciprocal Pronouns
9.9. Dummy Pronouns
10. Verbs
10.1. Subject-Verb Agreement
10.2. Finite and Non-finite Verbs
10.3. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
10.4. Regular and Irregular Verbs
10.5. Auxiliary and Lexical Verbs
10.5.1. Model Auxiliary Verbs
10.5.2. Substituting Model Verbs
10.5.3. Semi-Model Auxiliary Verbs
10.6.
10.7. Dynamic Verbs
10.8. More Verb Functions
10.9. Action Verbs
10.10. Linking Verbs
11. Adjectives
11.1. Absolute Adjectives
11.2. Comparative Adjectives
11.3. Superlative Adjectives
12. Determiners
12.1. Articles
12.2. Demonstrative Determiners
12.3. Interrogative Determiners
12.4. Possessive Determiners
12.5. Quantifiers
13. Adverbs
13.1. Time
13.2. Place
13.3. Manner
13.4. Frequency
13.5. Degree
13.6. Confirmation and Negation
13.7. Comment
13.8. Conjunction
14. Prepositions
14.1. Using Tools
14.2. Direction
14.3. Time
14.4. Agents
14.5. Place
14.6. Particles
15. Conjunctions
 15.1. Coordinating Conjunctions
15.2. Correlative Conjunctions
15.3. Subordinating Conjunctions
16. Interjections
17. Tenses
17.1. Present
17.2. Past
17.3. Future
18. Anaphora
19. Dangling Modifiers
20. Exaggeration
21. Infinitives
22. Transitions

WORDS

noun

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words that express a concept and is used as a unit within a sentence.
Eight common types of phrases are: noun, verb, gerund, infinitive, appositive, participial,
prepositional, and absolute. Take a look at our selection of phrase examples below.

NOUN PHRASES

A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers.

Here are examples:

 The bewildered tourist was lost.

 The lost puppy was a wet and stinky dog.
 The flu clinic had seen many cases of infectious disease.
 It was a story as old as time.
 The sports car drove the long and winding road.
 Saturday became a cool, wet afternoon.

VERB PHRASES

A verb phrase consists of a verb and all its modifiers.

Here are examples:

 He was waiting for the rain to stop.

 She was upset when it didn't boil.
 You have been sleeping for a long time.
 You might enjoy a massage.
 He was eager to eat dinner.

GERUND PHRASES

A gerund phrase is simply a noun phrase that starts with a gerund.

Examples include:

 Taking my dog for a walk is fun.

 Walking in the rain can be difficult.
 Strolling along a beach at sunset is romantic.
 Getting a promotion is exciting.
 Signing autographs takes time.
 Going for ice cream is a real treat.
 Singing for his supper was how he earned his keep.
 Getting a sore back was the result of the golf game.
 Pulling an all-nighter did not improve his test scores.
 Sailing into the sunset was the perfect end to the book.

INFINITIVE PHRASES

An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase that begins with an infinitive verb.

Here are some examples:

 To make lemonade, you have to start with lemons.
 I tried to see the stage, but I was too short.
 She organized a boycott to make a statement.
 To see Niagara Falls is mind-boggling.
 He really needs to get his priorities in order.
 The company decided to reduce hours for everyone.
 To donate time or money is an honourable thing.
 I went to Spain to study the language and culture.

APPOSITIVE PHRASES

An appositive phrase restates and defines a noun. It consists of one or more words.

Examples are:

 My favourite pastime, needlepoint, surprises some people.

 Her horse, an Arabian, was her pride and joy.
 My wife, the love of my life, is also my best friend.
 A cheetah, the fastest land animal, can run 70 miles an hour.
 My idea, a recycling bin for the office, was accepted by the boss.
 The Florida panther, the state animal of Florida, is an endangered species.

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

A participial phrase begins with a past or present participle.

Examples are:

 Washed with my clothes, my cell phone no longer worked.

 Knowing what I know now, I wish I had never come here.
 I am really excited, considering all the people that will be there.
 We are looking forward to the movie, having seen the trailer last week.
 Grinning from ear to ear, she accepted her award.
 The happy dog ran the entire length of the park, pausing only to sniff the dandelions.
 Painted a brilliant white, the small room appeared bigger.
 The lake, frozen over all winter, was finally thawing.
 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and can act as a noun, an adjective or an

adverb.

Examples are:

 The book was on the table.

 We camped by the brook.
 He knew it was over the rainbow.
 She was lost in the dark of night.
 He was between a rock and a hard place.
 I waited for a while.
 She smelled of strawberries and cream.
 He won the challenge against all odds.

ABSOLUTE PHRASES

An absolute phrase has a subject, but not an action verb, so it cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence. It modifies the whole sentence, not just a noun.

Examples are:

 His tail between his legs, the dog walked out the door.
 Picnic basket in hand, she set off for her date.
 The guys attacked the pile of nachos, their fingers getting the last bit of cheese off the plate.
 Their heads hanging down, the whole group apologized.
 The entire team, their uniforms muddy and stained, shouted for joy.

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words that contains a verb (and usually other components too). A

clause may form part of a sentence or it may be a complete sentence in itself. For example:

[CLAUSE]
He was eating a bacon sandwich.
She had a long career
but she is remembered mainly for one early work.
MAIN CLAUSE

Every sentence contains at least one main clause. A main clause may form part of
a compound sentence or a complex sentence, but it also makes sense on its own, as in this
example:
He was eating a bacon sandwich. [main clause]
Compound sentences are made up of two or more main clauses linked by
a conjunction such as and, but, or so, as in the following examples:

[main clause] [conjunction] [main clause]

I love sport and I’m captain of the local football team.

She was born in

but her mother is Polish.
Spain

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

A subordinate clause depends on a main clause for its meaning. Together with a main
clause, a subordinate clause forms part of a complex sentence. Here are two examples of
sentences containing subordinate clauses:
After we had had lunch, we went back to work.

[subordinate clause] [main clause]

I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early nineties.

[main clause] [subordinate clause]

There are two main types of subordinate clause: conditional clauses and relative clauses.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE

A conditional clause is one that usually begins with if or unless and describes something that
is possible or probable:
If it looks like rain a simple shelter can be made out of a plastic sheet
 [conditional clause] [main clause]

I'll be home tomorrow unless the plane's delayed for hours.

[main clause] [conditional clause]

RELATIVE CLAUSE

A relative clause is one connected to a main clause by a word such

as which, that, whom, whose, when, where, or who:
[main clause] [relative clause]
I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early nineties.
She wants to be with Thomas, who is best suited to take care of her?
I was wearing the dress  that I bought to wear to Jo's party.

USING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Have you ever wondered about when to use that and when to use which or who in this type
of sentence? In fact, for much of the time that is interchangeable with either of these
words. For example:
√ You’re the only person who has ever listened to me.
√ You’re the only person that has ever listened to me.
√ It’s a film that should be seen by everyone.
√ It’s a film which should be seen by everyone
When referring to something, rather than someone, that tends to be the usual choice in
everyday writing and conversation in British English. However, there is one main case when
you should not use that to introduce a relative clause. This is related to the fact that there
are two types of relative clause: a restrictive relative clause and a non-restrictive relative
clause.

RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

A restrictive relative clause (also known as a defining relative clause) gives essential

information about a noun that comes before it: without this clause the sentence wouldn’t
make much sense. A restrictive relative clause can be introduced
by that, which, whose, who, or whom. You should not place a comma in front of a restrictive
relative clause:
 √ She held out the
which was hurt.
hand 

√ She held out the hand that was hurt.

[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]

 You can also leave out that or which in some restrictive relative clauses:

√ It reminded him of the

that he used to rent in Oxford.
house

√ It reminded him of the

which he used to rent in Oxford.
house

√ It reminded him of the

he used to rent in Oxford.
house

[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]

NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

A non-restrictive relative clause (also called a non-defining relative clause) provides extra
information that could be left out without affecting the meaning or structure of the
sentence. Non-restrictive relative clauses are normally introduced by which, whose, who,
or whom, but never by that. You should place a comma in front of them:
She held out her
which Rob shook.
hand,

[main clause] [non-restrictive relative clause]

If a non-restrictive relative clause is in the middle of a sentence, you should put commas
before and after it:
who had fallen asleep on the
Bill, suddenly roused himself.
sofa,

  [non-restrictive relative clause]  

Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. Synonyms are words with the same or similar
meaning. Homonyms are words that are spelled and pronounced the same, but have
different meanings.

Slowly but surely, we can help our kids overcome vocabulary and spelling challenges. Let's
start with a couple easy examples.

ANTONYMS

Kids can use antonyms to show contrast between two things or emphasize a point. They can
also use them to explain exactly how they feel. Here are some examples:

Add - Subtract Happy - Sad Raise - Lower

Above - Below Hard - Soft Right - Wrong
After - Before Heavy - Light Rise - Sink
Awake - Asleep High - Low Rough - Smooth
Bad - Good In - Out Same - Different
Better - Worse Last - First Sell - Buy
Big - Little Laugh - Cry Short - Long
Birth - Death Learn - Teach Sour - Sweet
Boy - Girl Less - More Start - Stop
Clean - Dirty Lie - Truth Stay - Leave
Close - Open Long - Short Stop - Go
Cold - Hot Loose - Tight Strong - Weak
End - Begin Lost - Found Teacher - Student
Dark - Light Love - Hate Tidy - Messy
Day - Night North - South True - False
Even - Odd On - Off Ugly - Beautiful
Fail - Pass Over - Under Up - Down
False - True Play - Work White - Black
Float - Sink Polite - Rude Wild - Tame
East - West Poor - Rich Win - Lose
Fat - Skinny Present - Absent Well - Sick
Hungry - Full Top - Bottom Wet - Dry
Gentle - Rough Quick - Slow Young - Old
For more examples of antonyms, including graded antonyms, complementary antonyms and
relational anonyms, feel free to enjoy Examples of Antonyms.

SYNONYMS

Synonyms provide variety in our speech or writing. It's important to expose kids to various
sets of synonyms, so they can learn to avoid repetition. Here are some examples to get
them started:

Gloomy, sad, unhappy

Afraid, scared, frightened Quick, fast, swift
Happy, glad, joyful, cheerful
Automobile, car, vehicle Quiet, calm
Hide, cover
Big, large, huge Rest, relax
House, home
Blank, empty, hollow Rock, stone
Ill, sick, unwell
Bunny, rabbit, hare Rug, carpet, mat
Idea, thought
Cap, hat Sack, bag, backpack
Jog, run
Centre, middle, inside Sniff, smell, inhale
Listen, hear
Couch, sofa, divan Strange, odd, weird
Little, small, tiny
Evil, bad, wicked Tall, high, big
Look, see, glance, stare
Famous, well-known True, right, correct
Mad, angry, furious
Father, dad, daddy Under, below, beneath
Mother, mom, mommy
Funny, silly, playful, crazy Woman, lady, female
Neat, tidy, clean
Garbage, trash, junk, waste Yell, shout, scream
Present, gift, reward, award

HOMONYMS

Homonyms are words that have the same spelling and sound the same but have different
meanings. While this can be a tricky concept to explain, posting a nice list in the classroom
may prove beneficial. Here's a healthy list of homonyms to start the conversation:

Address - manner of speaking to someone Address: description of a place's location

Bear - a large mammal
Book - to reserve a hotel room or a table at a
restaurant
Cave - to give in or surrender
Chair - an item of furniture
Bear - to be able to cope with something
Book - pages bound together with a cover
Cave - a hole or gap in a rock or in earth
Chair - the head of a department
Change - to replace the clothes you are
wearing with another outfit
Cool - chilly in temperature
Crane - a large type of bird
Deck - a pack of playing cards
Duck - a type of bird
Even - numbers divisible by two
Fall - to drop down
Club- a heavy stick used as a weapon
Fire - to let someone go from a job
Groom - to make tidy in appearance
Gross - disgusting
Jam - stuck
Key - scale of musical notes
Left - one side of the body
Light - to set fire
Line - measure of length
Man - male person
Match - competitive sporting event
Nail - the end plate of your finger or toe
Park - area used for recreation
Pen - an instrument for writing
Seal - a type of mammal
Show - to display
Sign - omen
Tank - military vehicle
Tire - rubber covering of a wheel
Trip - to stumble
Wave - move your hand sideways to say hello Wave - a movement in water
Watch - a wearable timepiece
Yard - space around a house
Change - money given back after a purchase
Cool - someone trendy or popular
Crane - a mechanical device used for lifting
Deck - a floor or platform extended from a
building or ship
Duck - to lower your head or body to avoid
being hit by something
Even - flat and level surface
Fall- the season between summer and winter
Club - a group of people with something in
common
Fire - flames, something burning
Groom - the man who is about to get married
Gross - large
Jam - spread made from fruit and sugar
Key - device used to lock or unlock a door
Left - what is remaining of something
Light - pale in colour
Line - verse in a poem or story
Man - to brace or fortify
Match - a device used to start a fire
Nail - sharp piece of metal for holding things
together
Park - to leave a vehicle in a space for a while
Pen - type of enclosure for animals
Seal - a tight closure
Show - a type of broadcast
Sign - to write your signature on something to
make it official
Tank- container used to store liquid
Tire - to become weary or bored
Trip - a journey
Watch - to look carefully
Yard - measurement of length
SHORT FORMS

TO BE - SIMPLE PRESENT FORM

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Long form Short form Long form Short form

I am I'm I am not I'm not

He is He's He is not He isn't or He's not

She is She's She is not She isn't or She's not

It is It's It is not It isn't or It's not

You aren't or You're
You are You're You are not
not

We aren't or We're
We are We're We are not
not

They are They're They are not They're not

TO BE - SIMPLE PAST FORM

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Long form Short form Long form Short form

I was I was not I wasn't

He was He was not He wasn't

She was She was not She wasn't

It was --- It was not It wasn't

You were You were not You weren't

We were We were not We weren't

They were They were not They weren't

 TO DO - SIMPLE PRESENT FORM

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Long form Short form Long form Short form

I do I do not I don't

He does He does not He doesn't

She does She does not She doesn't

It does --- It does not It doesn't

You do You do not You don't

We do We do not We don't

They do They do not They don't

TO DO - SIMPLE PAST FORM

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Long
Long form Short form Short form
form

I / he /
she /
I / he / she
it /
I / he / she / it / you / we / / it / you /
--- you /
they did we /
we /
they didn't
they did
not

TO HAVE - SIMPLE PRESENT FORM

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Long form Short form Long form Short form

I have I've I have not I haven't or I've not

He has He's He has not He hasn't or He's not

 She hasn't or She's
She has She's She has not
not

It has It's It has not It hasn't or It's not

You
You have You've You have not haven't or You've
not

We haven't or We've
We have We've We have not
not

They
They have They've They have not haven't or They've
not

TO HAVE - SIMPLE PAST FORM

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Long form Short form Long form Short form

I hadn't or I'd not
I'd he hadn't or he'd not
he'd she hadn't or she'd not
she'd it hadn't or it'd not
I / he / she / it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you
it'd you hadn't or you'd
they had / we / they had not
you'd not
we'd we hadn't or we'd not
they'd they hadn't or they'd
not

Note - We don't use the short form of be, will or have if it takes the final position in a sentence.

The long and short forms of the modal verbs can, could, shall, should,
must, will and would

CAN

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Short
Long form Long form Short form
form

I / he / she / it / you / --- I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

we / they can they cannot we / they can't

COULD

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Short
Long form Long form Short form
form

I / he / she / it / you / I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

---
we / they could they could not we / they couldn't

MUST

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Short
Long form Long form Short form
form

I / he / she / it / you / I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

---
we / they must they must not we / they mustn't

SHALL

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Short
Long form Long form Short form
form

I / he / she / it / you / I / he / she/ it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /

---
we / they shall they shall not we / they shan't

SHOULD

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Short
Long form Long form Short form
form

I / he / she / it /
I / he / she / it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you / we /
--- you / we /
they should they should not
they shouldn't
 WILL

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Long form Short form Long form Short form

I won't or I'll not
I'll
He won't or He'll not
He'll
She won't or She'll not
She'll
I / he / she / it / you / I / he / she / it / you / It won't or It'll not
It'll
we / they will we / they will not You won't or You'll not
You'll
We won't or We'll not
We'll
They won't or They'll
They'll
not

WOULD

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Short
Long form Long form Short form
form

I wouldn't or I'd
not
He
wouldn't or He'd
not
She
I'd wouldn't or She'd
He'd not
She'd It wouldn't or It'd
I / he / she / it / you / we / I / he / she / it / you /
It'd* not*
they would we / they would not
You'd You
We'd wouldn't or You'd
They'd not
We
wouldn't or We'd
not
They
wouldn't or They'd
not

* Not "good" English, but you will hear occasionally.

 The imperative

Positive Statement Negative Statement

Short Long form - used by

Long form - rarely used Short form
form pompous people

Let us Let's Let us not Let's not

DEMONSTRATIVE

Demonstratives are words we use to indicate nouns in a sentence.

The four most common demonstratives are this, that, these and those.

This
This refers to a singular noun, We also use this for uncountable nouns that we treat as
singular.

Ex:-

a) This cupcake is delicious. (singular)

b) Get a grip on all this anger. (singular or uncountable noun)

This is often used to talk about time. It can be used to talk about time in the present or in
the near past or near present.

Ex:-

a) My mom called me this morning. (near past)

b) What’s for dinner this evening? (near future)
c) I had three cancellations this week. (present)
d) This year has been difficult for my family. (present)

NOUNS
Nope, the definition hasn’t changed since you were little. Nouns are still people, places, and
things. That’s a broad range, so in this article we’ll explain nouns in more depth. What are
the different kinds of nouns? How do they function in a sentence? Let’s get started.
 WHAT IS A NOUN?

A noun is a person, place, or thing. The first two are clear—the last one’s a bit nebulous. A
"thing" can be a feeling, or a concept, or an object, or a unit of measurement. If you’re not
sure, consult your dictionary (or better yet, your ProWritingAid app).

WHAT IS A NOUN’S FUNCTION IN A SENTENCE?

Every sentence needs a subject and a verb. A noun is most often the subject of a sentence.
For example:

 Wilson ruled his kingdom so well they wrote a song about him.
“Wilson” is the subject of this sentence, and also a noun. The verb is “ruled,” and it tells you
what Wilson is doing. Let’s try another example.

 The astronaut moonwalked across the surface of the planet.

We’ve got three nouns here: astronaut, surface, and planet. However, only “astronaut” is
the subject, since she’s the one doing the moonwalking. (By the way, surface is one of the
“things” covered by our definition.)

TYPES OF NOUNS

COMMON NOUNS

These are any old regular noun. They refer to people, places, or things in
general.

 teacher
 school
 education

PROPER NOUNS

These refer to a specific person, place, or thing. To signify their importance,

proper nouns are always written with initial capital letters.

 Mary Shelley
 South America
 Instagram
 CONCRETE NOUN

This type of noun refers only to things that interact with our senses. That is,
they can be touched, seen, smelled, tasted, or heard.

 paper
 coffee
 pencil

ABSTRACT NOUN

Abstract nouns refer to things which cannot be observed by the senses. For
example:

 time
 confusion

 happiness

Yes, you can look at someone’s face and see that they’re happy. However,
happiness is still considered abstract because happiness itself is not an
observable object.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Collective nouns refer to a particular group of people, places, or things.

 parliament
 flock
 audience

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

These are self-explanatory. Countable nouns are those that can be counted:

 decade
 book

 car

Uncountable nouns, on the other hand, have an indefinite or undefinable

value, and therefore cannot be counted:
 water
 snow

 light

You’ll notice that many abstract nouns end up being uncountable as well.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

Many nouns have multiple forms: singular and plural. Singular nouns refer to
one person, place, or thing, while plural nouns refer to multiple people, places
or things.

Some examples of singular nouns:

 ox
 bookshelf

 nation

Now here are the plural forms of these same verbs:

 oxen
 bookshelves
 nations