Table of Contents

Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................3
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................4
1. What are Media?.....................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Types of Media..................................................................................................................................7
1.3 What is Media Audience?..................................................................................................................8
1.4 What is Public Opinion?.....................................................................................................................9
2. Media Ethics..........................................................................................................................................10
2.1 A Revolution in Ethics......................................................................................................................11
3. History of Media in the United States....................................................................................................14
3.1 The Print Media...............................................................................................................................15
3.2 The Broadcast Media.......................................................................................................................15
4. Media Influence in the US: The Beginning.............................................................................................16
5. Media Influence in the US: 20th Century................................................................................................17
5.1 Media Influence in the US: World War I..........................................................................................18
5.2 Media influence in the US: The Interwar Period..............................................................................20
5.3 Media Influence in the US: World War II.........................................................................................21
5.3.1 Development............................................................................................................................21
5.3.2 Media Types Used.....................................................................................................................21
5.3.3 Movies......................................................................................................................................22
5.3.4 Radio.........................................................................................................................................22
5.3.5 Themes.....................................................................................................................................22
5.4 Media Influence in the US: Cold War...............................................................................................24
5.5 Media influence in the US: The Vietnam War..................................................................................26
6. Media Influence in the US: September 11 Attacks................................................................................28
6.1 The imagery of the twin towers.......................................................................................................28
6.2 Talk show commentary....................................................................................................................28
6.3 Zenith of reality television...............................................................................................................28
6.4 New era of anti-war films................................................................................................................29
6.5 Music of protest and patriotism......................................................................................................29

1
 6.6 Jack Bauer becomes a household name..........................................................................................29
6.7 New boogeyman for the silver screen.............................................................................................29
6.8 The rise of Michael Moore...............................................................................................................30
6.9 Airport scenes..................................................................................................................................30
6.10 The image of the firemen..............................................................................................................30
7. Media influence in the US: Terrorism....................................................................................................31
8. Media Influence in the US: Elections.....................................................................................................32
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................34
Works Cited...............................................................................................................................................35

2
 Abstract

The influence of the media on public opinion in the United States is the main focus of the
study of this paper, which will define in greater detail the basic terms about the influence of the
media, the history of the emergence, the gradual development, and today's dominance of the
American media in all the more important daily political, economic and other fields.
American media have been among the first in the world to begin to influence social
circumstances since the creation of the first media and attempts to banalize British tyranny and
the then British government in the United States. A very important period of development of the
American media is based on their influence on public opinion in order to promote the
Constitution and freedom of speech.
The research clearly states that the US media were in the hands of the state in their
beginnings, and paper we will also define the decisions of the US state to finance the creation
and publication of the media, as well as to analyze the messages that have through them reached
its users.
This paper accurately defines the sociological, psychological and political influence of
the media in the United States on all major events in the country and the world, starting with the
election for the American President, the World Wars during the 20th century, the Cold War in
the second half of the last century until the new millennium.
The sole fact that some US media have so much power (CNN) to change public opinion
for as much as 10% makes this work useful for analyzing media influence on public opinion in
the United States.

3
Introduction

"Amendment I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or

prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of
grievances."

The First Amendment to the US Constitution protects freedom of speech, which is why
the American courts, particularly Supreme Court, deal with cases related to freedom of speech
with a special accent. Freedom of speech does not only apply to a written or spoken word;
burning the American flag is also allowed, which has already been confirmed by the Supreme
Court judgments. Freedom of speech is not absolute in all countries. In certain states freedom of
speech is limited to specific types of laws aimed at preventing hate speech.
Freedom of speech is a universal right to speak freely and to express views without
censorship or fear of possible punishments. This right is also given by the European Charter of
Human Rights which guarantees freedom of speech as one of the fundamental human rights.
These rules are used in practice both in a positive and negative context. In this paper, we will
explain the influence of all kinds of media on public opinion in the United States through history
with a special focus on the 21st century. Freedom of speech does not imply the necessity of
freedom for writing or pronouncing everything, but it is about mutual freedom of expression and
responsibility.
Theories of media impact include interdisciplinary, psychological, sociological and
communication studies and explore how mass media influence the behavior and thinking of the
public opinion not only in the country in which they place their "products" but also more widely.
From day to day, the media have a growing impact on society, both positive and negative.
Negative influences are viewed through propaganda theories: Calling the wrong names - refers to
a message in which a certain idea "picks up" an ugly label that tells us to reject or condemn it
without analyzing the evidence. Contrary to the previous one, bare generalization - a method
which implies linking an idea with words that emphasize positive traits, identifying, or linking
ideas with a person or a phenomenon that is respected, loved or appreciated. Another well-
known method is testifying – a method where a well-known, popular person declares the idea, or
a product, good or bad. A normal world method – a method in which a speaker tries to convince
the audience that his ideas are good because they are "from the people", because "the whole
normal world" thinks the same way. Lastly, the so-called “card piling” method, that involves
choosing and using those facts or lies, illustrations or things that distract attention, logical or
illogical statements, which allows the media to paint the best or the worst possible picture of an
idea, a program, a person or a product.

4
 Commercial use of media in advertising in America occurs in the 19th century, but with
the increasing number of newspaper’s circulation, and later the radio, it takes the momentum and
from a purely informative function, becomes propaganda-enthusiastic.

1. What are Media?

It is often said that world has become a global village. It is media that has shrunk the
world into a village. TV, radio, telecommunication, and the Internet have reduced distances and
brought world's countries closer to each other. Media is the integral part of democracy. It acts as
a keeper of democracy and facilitates the decision-making process. It has become the voice of
the masses.
Indeed, media is an instrument in molding public opinion. A society with limited or
restricted media company resembles a dormant water. Such a society breeds ignorant minds.
People stay uninformed of events, are unaware of their rights, their obligation to the state, and
their part they can play in improving society. Thomas Babington Macaulay called Print as the
fourth pillar of the country. With the arrival of new technology, the media has gained great
power. This has turned the present era into an explosion of information.
Communication channels through which news, data, promotional messages are dispersed
are called media. Media includes broadcasting and narrowcasting channels such as, TV, radio,
telephone, newspapers, magazines, billboards, fax and internet.
As the time progressed, media has become a part of our society. It has firmly settled its
roots in our life and now it’s difficult to survive without it in this modern age. Media plays
numerous vital functions in the present age ranging from political to educational. Let’s analyze
its major functions.1
Media is a powerful weapon. It creates awareness and consciousness of rights, duties and
responsibilities among the people. Through it, people and government become aware of the
future challenges.
For a democracy to bloom, a free and solid media is essential. Free and reasonable media
is considered as keeper of democracy. It guarantees free and fair elections, responsibility and
transfer of power. Autocratic rulers and military dictators always have a profound loathing for a
media as it exposes their illegitimacy, corruption and ineptness.
One of the most concerning issues that world is facing today is intolerance and mutual
mistrust. Intolerance creates a public wilderness out of a society. World needs a major change.

1
https://www.mediaethicsmagazine.com/index.php/browse-back-issues/144-fall-2012/3998645-concept-media-ethics-in-the-
digital-age

5
Media, being as much powerful source today, partakes by promoting tolerance and mutual
understanding.
Media is the main source easily accessible to all walks of people through TV, radio,
newspapers, Internet, mobile phones. People express their issues through media which draws the
attention of policy makers. In this way, media shapes the public opinion as a means of putting
pressure on the Government and policy makers.
Media, through its varying styles, has brought the countries closer to each other. It
depicts the religion and culture of the countries. It creates social harmony and understanding and
promotes brotherhood.
In addition, media also have a role in entertainment and recreational activities.
Entertainment is a necessity for every society. Without it, society will suffocate. Cinemas, films,
TV channels, radio and internet provide entertainment for healthy and smooth life.
Media represents a reflection of a society. It reflects the true picture of it. Therefore, it
affects the society in different ways, both positive and negative and. Below are some aspects of
life in which media partakes.
Media is a powerful and effective political tool. It raises the voice of the masses and acts
as the representative of society. It watches out for every single activity of the Government. It not
only emphasizes downsides and lapses in the works done by the Government but also suggests
methods to improve them. It brings expert opinions through various debates and provides the
government a guideline to follow. It also brings the performance of the ruling government to the
masses and acts as agent of change. It is further useful in evading undemocratic and
unconstitutional actions by military dictators and civilian rulers.
Furthermore, media assumes an exceptionally essential part in economic sphere. It
attracts the foreign investors by showing government’s projects internationally. It is also a great
source of purchasing and selling. One can do all one’s business just sitting at home through
internet. It keeps its viewers in touch with the new trends in business and products through
advertisement. Changing costs of the essentials are not a hidden matter now. It also presents the
performance of stock exchange which keeps the investors updated.
Regarding social sphere, it has brought the people of the world closer to one another. It
changes states of mind and behaviors of people from conservative to liberal. It cleanses the
society from superstitions, evils and fake stories by presenting bold topic through channels and
talk shows.

6
1.2 Types of Media

The widest division of media is undoubtedly according to distribution mode:

Printed media are newspapers and other occasional editions that come out at intervals of
up to six months, and in circulation of more than 500 copies. A printed work that is published
occasionally in less than 500 copies is considered to be printed if it is intended for distribution.
Television (Ancient Greek (tèle), meaning 'far', and Latin visio, meaning 'sight') is a
telecommunications system for broadcasting and receiving moving images and sound from a
large distance. This term applies to all aspects of television programming and transmission, too.
Television is an electronic system through which the optical image and sound are converted into
electronic signals, which are transmitted to the receiver, where they are converted into optical
image and sound.
Television became commercially available in a roughly experimental form during the late
1920s. After the Second World War, the improved form of television was popularized in the
United States and Britain, and the television set found its place in homes, businesses, and
institutions. In the 1950s, television became the primary medium for formulating public opinion.
During the 1960s, color television gained popularity in the US and this trend was
followed by other developed countries. The availability of storage media such as VHS (1976),
DVD (1997), and High-Resolution Blu-ray Discs (2006) enabled viewers to use a television to
watch recorded material such as movies and television programs. By the end of the first decade
of the 2000s, with the transition to digital television, the popularity of television has increased
significantly. Since 2010, with the arrival of smart TV, Internet television has led to the
availability of television programs on the Internet through services such as Netflix, iPlayer, and
Hulu.
Radio is a wireless transmission using electromagnetic waves with frequencies lower
than the frequencies of infrared light, hence the name "radio waves".
Radio has an impact on many areas, so the term radio is used mostly in words such as
radio technics, radiocommunications, radio broadcasting, radios, etc.

7
1.3 What is Media Audience?

In order to better understand the complex relationships in the media-user-audience

environment, modern knowledge is needed on a theoretical and even more practical level. In the
light of these facts, it is important to mention that the research and understanding of the media
audience is the most important part of the planning and programming of each media institution.
By developing new quantitative and qualitative approaches in education an
interdisciplinary approach emerged as a possible effective solution. Users of the media / media
audience can be studied from two standpoints: from the standpoint of the individual and from the
point of view of mass media, which confirms that the concept of audience is differently defined
in everyday speech and in scientific and professional literature, and differently conceived and
applied in different historical periods, depending on the circumstances. The simplest definition of
the audience, when it comes to mass media such as press, radio and television, is the audience
consisting of readers, listeners or viewers of the media content
In fact, the audience is not an isolated, stable entity or an easily visible phenomenon that
we can simply observe and analyze. Moores (1993) thinks that it is better to talk about audiences
than about the audience because the plural implies different groups that are divided among
themselves depending on the reception of different media and genres or in regards to their social
and cultural position. "
In the first theories about the role of media in society (the theory of a mass society, the
theoreticians of the Frankfurt School), the media audience was considered massive, inert,
unconnected and undifferentiated. The term "mass media" is also derived from this
understanding because that is how its social character is perceived. After decades of research we
know that the audience is made up of individuals with social connections and interests that
selectively and sometimes critically receive and differently perceive messages and media
contents.
Knowledge of the multiple identities of individuals, members of various social groups
who themselves seek media content that meets certain needs, and the possibilities of a different
understanding of media content, lead to an awareness of active public who is no longer
understood as a mass.

8
 Of course, everything comes down to information and justifies the question: Why is she
so important? Why did we become so dependent on her? The reasons can be interpreted from the
standpoint of the media because they just imposed it on us and we eventually accepted
everything that was offered to us "because at that very moment it was important for us to live."
The media has learned how to manipulate their audience, or with their "supercomputers" because
they are offering them what they want. And the media are still here because of us because they
educate, entertain and spread our insights.

1.4 What is Public Opinion?

The essential presumption of the existence of a state governed by the rule of law and a
"civil society" is the negation of the fabricated "political publicity" and the existence and
affirmation of the autonomous and free critical publicity and public opinion as a mechanism for
establishing the control of the bearers of political power, government and state administration, as
well as the mechanism that enables the establishment of autonomous organizations and
associations.
Public opinion means the opinion of the social group about important phenomena and
issues that interest it as a group.
Public opinion is a broad, large number of members of a society, a common
psychological-ideological reaction to the approval or condemnation, support or opposition to
actions, decisions, and measures of interest for that society.
Public opinion is most often publicly expressed, but it exists and works, even if it is not
always publicly expressed or cannot be expressed.
Public opinion is manifested primarily through words, spoken or written, but individual
authors expand its expression on behavior of subjects.
This means that it includes their voting in the elections, many forms rather formal or
informal, conventional and unconventional participation and activism, even the gestures of
subjects or carriers. Public opinion is also expressed through institutions: parliament, state,
religious, cultural and educational institutions and the media.
These last, therefore, are not only the factors of the formation of public opinion, but also
the field of its manifestation. Public opinion must be considered as something that is closely
linked to the concept of the public.
The public broadens the notion of the notion of public opinion that is created and shaped
in the public space in which citizens (the public) freely and impartially gather and freely express
their ideas and opinions.

9
 The public is a phenomenon that implies the participation access to citizens in
discussions relevant to the them, therefore it involves discussing important political issues and
important tasks.

2. Media Ethics

Let’s define what we mean by the term "ethics", particularly media ethics. Theorists
often define ethics in terms of a set of principles of right, or moral, conduct. Some ask whether
ethics are situational or absolute. Are there ethical principles and practices that transcend any and
all situations, or are they dependent upon the specific situation? In journalism and the media,
ethics is usually defined as a set of principles and practices expressed in a code for journalists or
media professionals to help them act responsibly.
There are four most common principles of truth-seeking: acting independently, avoiding
conflict of interest, responsibility and minimizing harm. Most journalistic codes are made of both
situational and absolute ethics. For example, in the Code of Ethics of the Professional Journalist
Association (SPJ), journalists were warned to "never plagiarize", but are encouraged to "Identify
sources whenever feasible", implying that anonymous sources are sometimes inevitable and
maybe appropriate, depending on the situation.
These codes help provide guidance. However, they might be lacking in particular
situation, or need updating in the world of ever-changing technology.
For instance, the emerging technology known as 3D printing may become an instrument
in news coverage in the years to come (i.e. in science or medical reporting), and may have ethical
ramifications for it's fitting use. However, it is not mentioned in the SPJ or some other media
ethics codes.
These codes need to be updated to affiliate the ethical use of 3D printing technology, or
other unexpected emergent technologies (i.e. augmented reality, now used by a growing number
of newspapers and other media) and the new dilemmas they may present.2
Digital media ethics deals with the apparent ethical issues, practices and norms of digital
news media. Digital news media is consisted of online journalism, blogging, digital
photojournalism, citizen journalism and social media. It includes questions about how
2
Ess, Charles. Digital Media Ethics. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2009.

10
professional journalism should use this ‘new media’ to research and publish stories, as well as
how to use text or images provided by citizens.

2.1 A Revolution in Ethics

A media revolution is transforming, fundamentally and irrevocably, the nature of

journalism and its ethics. The means to publish is now in the hands of citizens, while the internet
encourages new forms of journalism that are interactive and immediate.

Our media ecology is a chaotic landscape evolving at a furious pace.  Professional

journalists share the journalistic sphere with tweeters, bloggers, citizen journalists, and social
media users.

Amid every revolution, new possibilities emerge while old practices are threatened.
Today is no exception. The economics of professional journalism struggles as audiences migrate
online.
Shrinkage of newsrooms creates concern for the future of journalism. Yet these fears also prompt
experiments in journalism, such as non-profit centers of investigative journalism.3

A central question is to what extent existing media ethics is suitable for today’s
and tomorrow’s news media that is immediate, interactive and “always on” – a journalism of
amateurs and professionals. Most of the principles were developed over the past century,
originating in the construction of professional, objective ethics for mass commercial newspapers
in the late 19th century.

We are moving towards a mixed news media – a news media citizen and professional
journalism across many media platforms. This new mixed news media requires new mixed
media ethics – guidelines that apply to amateur and professional whether they blog, Tweet,
broadcast or write for newspapers. Media ethics needs to be rethought and reinvented for the
media of today, not of yesteryear.

Webster's New World Pocket Dictionary defines ethics as "moral standards" and as a
"system of morals." Webster's then defines moral as, "of or dealing with right or wrong."
Similarly, media ethics are moral standards that are applied to the media. An example of this is
the Society of Professional Journalists' Code of Ethics, a standardized list of items that members
of the SPJ use as a guide in their strides to be effective journalists. In a similar manner, media
3
Ward, Stephen J. A. “Ethics for the New Investigative Newsroom.

11
professionals sometimes use their code of ethics as a device to shield themselves from attacks
that are often led by individuals from the public who are dissatisfied with the journalist's work.
Just as codes of ethics are utilized in various ways, the definition of media ethics is multifaceted. 
 
  There is no single, ruling definition of media ethics. Instead, the concept of media ethics
exists in many forms that are all based on a similar premise of acting as a blueprint from which
media personnel can base their practices and their decisions. Ethics are not absolute rules, and
individuals who work with codes of ethics are not legally bound to them. But, a media worker
may be held professionally responsible for their actions if they are in conflict with their
profession's code of ethics. For example, if a journalist was to include racist remarks in their
newspaper story about an Asians American politician, that journalist would not likely be
arrested, but they would certainly be fired from their job. Even though ethics are not as absolute
as laws, individuals can
still be held accountable both socially and professionally, if they intentionally or carelessly break
the code of ethics that they work from. 
 
  Ethics vary from individual to individual in the same way that they vary from
organization to organization. In Webster's definition of ethics as a "system of morals," it is
important to recognize that the definition of morals can vary greatly form one person to another.
My personal moral standards are substantially different from the moral standards of a Catholic
Bishop, who was raised in a strict Roman Catholic household. This is to say that my ideas of
what is right and what is wrong would be considerably different from a Bishop's concept of right
and wrong. This is what makes the term ethics, and specifically media ethics difficult to define,
because there is not a universal mindset as to what is morally correct. 

Image and video manipulation represent another significant error of commission in the
digital age.  In perhaps the first dramatic case of digital image manipulation in the media,
National Geographic magazine editors in February 1982 digitally moved an image of great
pyramids of Egypt to obtain a better aspect ratio for the cover of their magazine.  Editors at Time
magazine performed a similar digital sleight-of-hand when they published a cover on June 27,
1994 showing a darkened image of a police mug shot of O. J. Simpson.  The alteration of the
image might have gone unnoticed except competing weekly newsmagazine Newsweek featured
on its cover the same mug shot, but unaltered—on the same day.  Anyone who saw the two
covers, especially side by side, immediately recognized that the time-cover had been darkened,
giving Simpson a more sinister, menacing appearance. 4
 
In November of 2000 U.S. President Bill Clinton and Cuban President Fidel Castro did
meet in New York at the United Nations.  But they never shook hands.  Yet, readers of the New
York Daily News might have thought otherwise, as editors created a digital composite image
showing the two world leaders reaching out hand-to-hand in a friendly gesture. 
 
NBC News executives in April 2012 fired the producer who edited the audio recording of
the 9-1-1 call George Zimmerman made to the police the night of the Trayvon Martin
shooting.11 The producer had edited the audio recording to give what is an apparently
misleading impression that Zimmerman had volunteered, without prompting by the police, that
4
https://ethics.journalism.wisc.edu/resources/digital-media-ethics/

12
Martin was black.12 As edited, Zimmerman states, "This guy looks like he's up to no good. He
looks black."  But in the deleted portion of the recording, the 9-1-1 dispatcher asks Zimmerman
whether the person Zimmerman was following is "black, white or Hispanic," to which
Zimmerman answers, "He looks black." [Zimmerman later sued the network for the alleged
effects of this edit on his reputation.]
 
HBO executives apologized in June 2012 when it was reported that one of the severed
heads featured in the 10th episode of the hit series Game of Thrones strongly resembled that of
President George W. Bush. Although producers said the use of a "President Bush" head in the
episode was inadvertent, HBO executives stated that a different decapitated head was digitally
substituted in future DVD releases and any future airings of the episode. 
 
Publishing images, photos, video and audio often involves editing of that content in some
fashion, such as simply for length or cropping to fit a screen or other media space.
Many of these simple edits involve no ethical concerns.  In general, the types of digital media
manipulations include:
1) the addition or subtraction of content;
2) composite imagery or constructed images, where multiple video or still images or their audio
equivalents are merged into one seamless image;
3) synthetic images, video or audio, where completely real-looking scenes are created artificially
depicting events that might have taken place or that might take place in the future; and
4) animations.  Three-dimensional (3D) printing is rapidly emerging as a commercially viable
technology that may soon be available for storytelling in journalism (i.e., a 3D photo could be
printed at home), and these same ethical principles should apply.
  It is also essential that any digitally altered image, video or audio, or any synthetic image,
video or audio or animation, or 3D printed object be clearly labeled so all viewers or listeners
understand the altered or artificial nature of the content.  This labeling is the only way to
maintain journalistic standards of truth, accuracy, and fairness.

13
 3. History of Media in the United States

In America, the history of media is inextricably intertwined with the history of the
country itself. The first newspaper in the American colonies - Benjamin Harris's “Publick
Occurrences both Foreighn and Domestick” - was published in 1690 but immediately shut down
for not having a required license.

Interestingly, Harris' newspaper employed an early form of reader participation. The

paper was printed on three sheets of stationery-size paper and the fourth page was left blank so
that readers could add their own news, then pass it on to someone else.
Many newspapers of the time were not objective or neutral in tone like the papers we know
today. Rather, they were fiercely partisan publications that editorialized against the tyranny of
the British government, which in turn did its best to crack down on the press.

Thomas Jefferson saw freedom of the press as a foundation of popular democracy. For
example, Congress permitted newspapers to be mailed at a price below cost (subsidized).
Because they were cheap, diversity flourished. The press was filled with partisan opinions on
various topics.
In order to not offend business clients, the AP favored the appearance of “objectivity” in the
newspapers. The idea of a “professional media” is born. News begins to have a big business bias.

As Newspaper Companies grow, they gobble up the competition. Wealthy white guys
owned the papers, and their political views were most often reflected by their newspapers.
Newspapers thrived into the mid-20th century but with the advent of radio, television and then
the Internet, newspaper circulation underwent a slow but steady decline. During the 21st century
the newspaper industry has grappled with layoffs, bankruptcies and even the closing of some
publications.

Still, even in an age of 24/7 cable news and thousands of websites, newspapers maintain
their status as the best source for in-depth and investigative news coverage. 5

5
https://www.slideshare.net/ianwienclawski/a-brief-history-of-the-media-in-the-usa

14
 The value of newspaper journalism is perhaps best demonstrated by the Watergate
scandal, in which two reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, did a series of investigative
articles about corruption and nefarious doings in the Nixon White House. Their stories, along
with ones done by other publications, led to President Nixon's resignation.

The future of print journalism as an industry remains unclear. On the internet, blogging
about current events has become enormously popular, but critics charge that most blogs are filled
with gossip and opinions, not real reporting.

3.1 The Print Media

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the print media was the most dominant form of
media. Print media is made up of books, newspapers, newsletters and magazines. It's any
communication intended for the general public that's lightweight, portable and printed on paper.
Print media in the United States essentially began with The Federalist Papers, which were
published and distributed to promote the ratification of the Constitution. For nearly 200 years,
newspapers were politically run. But by the mid-19th century, print media had evolved.
The evolution was due to several factors, including the invention of the telegraph. The
telegraph allowed newspapers to receive a steady stream of news dispatches from all over the
world. New steam-powered printing presses allowed for higher supplies, while growing literacy
rates led to higher demand. As a result, more independent newspapers joined the growing print
media field and some newspapers soon reached circulations in the millions.
By the latter half of the 19th century, competition led to yellow journalism. This is
journalism that exploits, distorts or exaggerates in order to attract readers. Widespread support
for the Spanish-American War can be attributed to yellow journalism. President McKinley
wanted to avoid a war, but sensationalized articles portrayed him as weak and encouraged the
war in order to give Cubans independence.
Magazine circulation increased during this time as well, leading to our nation's first
investigative journalism. Muckrakers were a group of journalists who exposed injustices and
political corruption in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In fact, the muckraking tactics of
two young Washington Post reporters exposed the Watergate scandal of the 1970s, and
muckraking is common today.

3.2 The Broadcast Media

15
 Broadcast media includes radio, television and Internet. It's any audio and/or video
communication intended for the general public. By the end of the 19th century, radio was
invented, but only used as a two-way communication system in industrial and military settings.
In the 1920s, several manufacturers decided to mass-produce radio receivers for sale to the
general public. As an incentive for people to buy radios, these same manufacturers created radio
stations. That's why, for example, General Electric owns NBC.
Franklin Roosevelt was the first president to regularly use radio addresses. He broadcast a
series of 'fireside chats' between 1933 and 1944 in order to discuss various political issues, such
as the banking crisis. Throughout World War II, radio was the main source of up-to-the-minute
news information.

4. Media Influence in the US: The Beginning

In order to analyze and define the beginnings of media influence in the US, we have to
define their historical beginnings, which is related to the very beginning of social political events
in the United States and the creation of a modern state. The history of media formation in the
United States relates to the period of the British colony and the British authorities in that country.
The first media (newspapers) in the United States aimed at the political struggle against British
tyranny and the British government.
Initially, we have to note that the first media in the United States were owned by the state
and they served the state accordingly. The first media in the United States were not modern
media - independent and objective - but they used to promote the Constitution, laws, the rule of
law and political pamphlets of the then government. The entire material in the media was
intended to impose laws and decisions in the public opinion in America and to control them in
order to form and respect the rule of law.
The US Congress, noticing the strength and significance of the media, decided to fund it.
Their cheap price made the media reach almost every citizen in the country with the aim of
promoting the decisions of the US Congress. What is interesting about the very beginning of the
media in the US is that the media were full of partisan texts and views on various topics.
Recognizing the importance and power provided by the media, there is a kind of
historical evolution and a gradual privatization of the media in which the media are in the hands
of the powerful who aimed to promote and put pressure on then authorities in the United States
through the media. With the development of the media, their struggle for freedom and the legal
guarantee of their work and freedom of speech are also being developed.
Thomas Jefferson is one of the first presidents who suggested that the freedom of the
press be part of the Constitution and legal provisions because he considered it one of the basic
conditions for creating a modern democracy.

16
 5. Media Influence in the US: 20th Century

The dominant paradigm was the theory of limited effects in the United States that began
with Lazarsfeld's radio impact studies in the 1930s of the 20th century. The basic setting of this
paradigm is that the effect of the media is limited in the short term and determined by the
selectivity of the audience and interpersonal relationships. The focus of interest was on
investigating the ability of the media (at that time, press, radio, film) to influence people's
decisions.
The influence of the media in the USA was explored in the context of election or
marketing campaigns that were aimed at provoking a particular action, i.e. voting for a particular
option or buying certain products.
The effect of the medium being studied is focused on a particular activity and is short-
termed and focuses on a particular action. The results obtained confirmed the hypothesis that the
influence of the media is limited to primary social groups.
From this research, the thesis emerged that a social group appeared as a source of
information and as a selector.
This research they showed that mass media cannot easily homogenize masses and that
different political or marketing campaigns cannot produce major changes in opinions, attitudes
and actions (Katz 1987). However, these studies have confirmed that the media 'are increasing
interest, fixing attitudes and informing voters (Seaton 1992: 259, Perusko 1999: 75). Later this
theory split into a theory of satisfying needs and researching the diffusion of innovation."
Thus, the influence of the media is limited until the moment when a new news item is not
placed or our thoughts occupy another important thing or event. Society and the media are
mutually dependent. The company is eager for new knowledge, and the media is eager to place
as soon as possible some new news, interests or events. Something new always obscures the old.

17
 According to the first assumption of people in the 20th century, the US uses the media to
entertain and inform, while the diffusion of innovation deals with social networks, and the ways
and laws of transmitting influence, power and information. Representatives of the Frankfurt
School (Adorno, Horkheimer, Marcuse) came to a conclusion about the negative influence of the
media, they conceive them as the main agents of the process of hidden exchange of meanings of
basic values, such as freedom.
This paranoid theory of change is at the same time their explanation of totalitarianism.
Katz (1987) lists alternative paradigms in three directions that differ from the dominant paradigm
in their attitude to the media effects and the empirical research they carry out.

5.1 Media Influence in the US: World War I

Another Presidential Executive Order created what may be the most flamboyant of the
propaganda tools of the Committee of the Public Information: The Advertising Division. After
its formation, William H. Johns, President of American Association of Advertising Agencies,
was appointed as director (Pinkleton 1994, p. 232). Its aim was to advertise a positive message
for America’s participation in the war, but also to warn of the evils of ‘The Hun’ and her allies,
Austro-Hungary (Mock, Larson 1939, p. 98-9). A variety of methods were used, including
posters, window displays, car/bus cards, cartoons and photos. Posters ranged from advertising
‘liberty loans’ to depicting ‘barbarous’ Germans (sometimes, a combination of both).

One flier depicts an American soldier stopping a crooked looking German from sexually
assaulting a woman, with the headline, ‘Halt the Hun!’. Another depicts an ape, complete with
German spiked helmet, carrying a helpless woman with the caption, ‘Destroy this mad brute’.
The use of women as helpless and under threat was surely intended to tap into the ‘sanctity of
womanhood’ which so many Americans, particularly in the South, spoke of when defining
American culture. At a time when technology was not of the same standards of today’s 24-hour
news and television pictures, these posters try to create an illusion, whether true or not, of a
barbaric animalistic enemy Several of the CPI posters present illusions about the war itself to the
viewer. One is ‘Wake Up America!’. 6

6
Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane / Becker, Annette: 1914-1918. Understanding the Great War, London 2002: Profile.

18
 America is portrayed as a young innocent girl, fast asleep. Draped in the stars and stripes,
the poster urges Americans to become alert to the realities of war and the danger of the enemy,
having presumably been unaware of them up to this point. The image created here is one of an
America which was ignorant before, blissfully unaware of the horrors of war and, more
importantly, the necessity to enter it. The reality was that newspapers were certainly reporting
the events of war all the way through the conflict.

The Atlanta Constitution and New York Times, for example, had kept their readers
informed on a variety of events such as the fighting which took place in the winter of 1916
across the Somme. Neither article spare details, with the Times explaining how there had never
been fighting ‘on such a scale in the West’ (Author unknown 1916, ‘The Battle on the Somme,
The New York Times, Sept 6, p. unknown). These articles are a miniscule proportion of the vast
array of war reporting which was taking place before April 1917.

Another illusion is an advertisement for the navy, depicting a sailor happily walking by a
beach filled with palm trees. In what is perhaps an early example of small print advertising, the
bottom caption reads ‘Ashore, on leave’, much less visible than the main caption: ‘A Wonderful
Opportunity for YOU’. Religious imagery is also used in the posters. In ‘Our Greatest Mother’,
the CPI is calling on American women to become nurses for the War.

Another picture is a nurse holding a child of toddler age and in the background ancient
warriors can be seen riding on horses. The picture bears resemblance to traditional paintings of
the Virgin Mary holding her son Jesus Christ. The poster’s name even implies that the American
nurse can be placed on the same level, spiritual or otherwise, as the Mother of Christ. In a
Liberty Bonds Poster, the red nursing cross is used in dramatic fashion, covering almost the
entire poster.

Resembling the crucifix, standing in front is a woman dressed in a manner resembling the
Virgin Mary, in a traditional white gown. However, the gown is adorned in the stars and stripes.
The woman is also walking on water. The object of such posters is to link the War with that of a
religious crusade. America must fight in the conflict as it is her Christian duty, to do otherwise
would be both a betrayal of the country and its religion. This, of course, is an illusion as the First
World War bore little resemblance to The Crusades. But its effect is nonetheless striking.

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5.2 Media influence in the US: The Interwar Period

A major driving force in shaping American culture at this time was the rise of mass
media. Effects of radio on American society were far reaching. The first commercial radio
station, KDKA, began operation in 1920 in Pittsburgh. By 1929 approximately 40 percent of
American homes owned radios. The number of radio stations increased to 618 in 1930 and 765
in 1940. The number of families with radios more than doubled, rising from 12 million to 28
million. Programming included adventure stories, soap operas, comedies, sports, and music.
Millions listened to World Series baseball broadcasts and championship prizefights.
Popularity of mass publications also increased. Detective, western, movie, and romance
magazines attracted more and more readers. Major new publications included Readers Digest,
Look, and Life magazines. Affordable, mass-produced paperback books also became popular in
the late 1930s and 1940s. These books reached out to the immense magazine-buying public and
could be found on racks in department stores, drugstores, and newsstands. Top-selling books in
the 1930s were Pearl S. Buck's “The Good Earth”, Hervey Allen's “Anthony Adverse”, and John
Steinbeck's “The Grapes of Wrath”.7
The most popular form of entertainment out of the home was clearly the motion picture.
Movies with sound became standard by 1930, and Technicolor became common by the end of
the decade. Despite the Depression, attendance remained high through the decade. Popular
movies of the era tended to reflect the wishes of people to escape the monotony and hardships of
the Great Depression. Gangster films such as “Little Caesar” and “The Public Enemy”, comedies
such as “A Night at the Opera” and “Modern Times”, and animated features such as “Three
Little Pigs” and “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs” entertained audiences and offered a respite
from everyday life.

7
Media and War: An Analisis of World War II and Wietnam, Ryan Bourque, Amstud History 11, 2014.

20
 As during the nineteenth century, literature remained the most respected element of U.S.
culture in the interwar era. Many new authors had become established in the 1920s, such as
Sinclair Lewis, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, William Faulkner, and Eugene O'Neill.
In the 1930s John Steinbeck, Pearl Buck, John Dos Passos, Erskine Caldwell, James T. Farrell,
and Thomas Wolfe were added to this group. Major themes of American literature during the
Depression were social protest against the increasing influences of industrialization and
modernism, journalistic documentaries taking in-depth looks at the "real" America, anti-Fascism
in reaction to the rise of European dictators, and cultural nationalism supporting the U.S. cause
against foreign influences.
In art, Modernism of the 1920s changed to Realism in the 1930s. Through substantial
support of various federal relief programs, the focus shifted to nationalism (intense loyalty to
one's own country) as the most common theme. With the generous infusion of public funds,
American art was coming of age by the end of the 1930s.
5.3 Media Influence in the US: World War II

5.3.1 Development

The United States government was not into the idea of propaganda at first. This was due
in part to their propaganda efforts during World War I, which left a bad taste in the American
public’s mouth. The U.S. adopted the “strategy of truth,” where they would release information,
but not try and sway the public’s opinion regarding the war.
It would take businesses and media pressuring the United States government into putting
out campaigns, for it to actually happen. Even so, the government still viewed it as them simply
giving out information, as opposed to propaganda.
Agencies were created to help aid in the writing and distribution of propaganda. Two of
the largest agencies involved were the Writers War Board and the United States Office of War
Information. The Writers War Board handled the actual writing of propaganda and was made up
of infamous American writers. The United States Office of War Information had one purpose: to
deliver propaganda anywhere they could. This agency put out propaganda through Hollywood
Studios, radio, and posters. The agency was a success but was dissolved following the end of war
in September of 1945.

5.3.2 Media Types Used

The United States had propaganda in just about every aspect of media you could imagine,
except for television. Though televisions have existed since the 1920s, they weren’t

21
commonplace in households until the 1950s. Media types used included radio, posters, leaflets,
comic books, books, movies, magazines, and newspapers.
Posters were widely used by the United States for propaganda during World War II, so
much that there were over 200,000 poster designs created and printed during the war. The
posters mostly had a positive message, which differed from other countries and they were
designed by artists who were not compensated for their work.
Comics were not an exception to American propaganda. Many comics had common
themes among them associated with the war effort whether that be the characters fighting Axis
Powers or purchasing war bonds, production, etc.
Leaflets were an important aspect of the spread of propaganda, as they could be used to
reach those in rural areas. The leaflets would be dropped by planes over these areas, by the
thousands. There was even a B-17 bomber group that was completely dedicated to the
distribution of leaflets.
The leaflets were also distributed to enemy troops, who could use them to surrender. But
the main purpose of this was to display how powerful the United States was, due to the fact they
could use planes for this sole purpose.
Following the atomic bombings in August of 1945, the United States dropped pamphlets
in Japan that suggested they were working on a more powerful bomb to be used if necessary.

5.3.3 Movies

At first, movies were more neutral to the war than anything, not portraying any one party
in any particular way. Following Pearl Harbor, this changed completely, and movies began
favoring the Allied cause. Most movies produced during this time feature some sort of wartime
aspect. They were either based on the war, or they were set in a war atmosphere. This was true
even if the movie had nothing to do with warfare.

5.3.4 Radio

Radio was likely the most widely used form of propaganda during the war. Shows could
be broadcasted all across the United States as well as the world, which helped broaden its reach.
Popular shows during this time were President Roosevelt’s “Fireside Chat,” which was a radio
show featuring the President. The show was created in the 1930s, but he did several of them
during World War II. Other popular war-themed shows included This is War, which was
broadcast around the world and Our Secret Weapon which was a show that listened to Axis
broadcast signals and discussed the most entertaining lies of the week.

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5.3.5 Themes

No matter the propaganda, it had a main theme and an underlying theme. The main theme
was always to support the war effort, the underlying theme could be anything from buy war
bonds to something anti-German or anti-Japanese.
The most popular types of propaganda were those asking for people to assist in the war
effort. That could be anything from getting a factory job, to buying bonds, or converting goods.
Posters were produced asking Americans to try and conserve products such as fats, butter,
coffee, and rubber. Conservation was the largest theme among posters produced during the war,
as one in seven posters carried this theme.
Their efforts were not a waste, as the United States was successful in recycling goods.
One such example is the amount of paper that was recycled, 46 billion pounds.
Other popular themes include victory gardens, which asked the public to plant gardens in
the event of a vegetable shortage, as well as industry and production, pro-allies and women’s
power (which aimed at getting women into the workforce).
Propaganda was a very powerful tool for each country that used it during World War II.
The United States was no exception to this, as it helped unite the public and the military in the
fight to win the war.

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5.4 Media Influence in the US: Cold War

The Cold War is accepted to have lasted from 1947 to 1991. Carruthers considers that,
during this time, the media’s predominant medium of communication evolved from radio and
print into television. This change was accompanied along with the role of the media from a
‘mouthpiece’ of the state, to a more, prima facie, independent sector. The media’s role in the
production, contribution and maintenance of Cold War antagonism cannot be understated. When
American aspirations for European capitalism seemed threatened; media in both blocs jumped
into action. While the actions of the state-owned Soviet media would not be expected to take a
watchdog approach, what may have been surprising was the extent to which the western media
took a mouthpiece position.8
Doherty’s statement, however, is that the allegiance that of the majority of the media took
to government policy and the politization of its content began almost immediately with the start
of the Cold War. This is evident with the early Cold War television reports often being scripted
and sometimes produced by the defense establishment. This development of the media accepting
governmental influence was essential to the production of public support for state actions. 9
The initial role the media took was to motivate the post-WW2 populace into reaffirming
and defending their national political and economic allegiances. While the private-owned
Western media was obliging in the defense of Western economic and military interests, the state-
censored soviet media was just as ready to defend theirs. All media succeeded in the production
of public support for their government’s actions against the foreign enemy. The Western Allied
governments and the Soviet Union could never have produced or maintained sufficient public
support and jingoism for the long conflict without the media’s contribution.

8
Bernhard, N. (1999) ‘U.S Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947-1960’. Cambridge: The Press Syndicate of the University of
Cambridge
9
Doherty,T (2003) ‘Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture’ New York: Columbia University Press

24
 At the start of the conflict, media coverage of the Cold War between America, its allies
and the Soviet Union served to escalate domestic fear of imminent destruction. “The Red Scare”
campaigns of the Western media were presented on every applicable media source. The use of
print with easily de-codable and emotive images helped to redefine national identity as a virtuous
and patriotic America, against a dangerous and destructive socialist east. The media distributed
extreme propagandist slogans such as “Better Dead than Red!” This type of politicized
propaganda served to cause hysteria over communism and nuclear war. It worked to subdue any
domestic sympathy for the enemy or resistance to the conflict that usually occurs during war. It
was a calculated action to maintain public antagonism towards the enemy and rejection of their
political and economic policies.
The media extended the propaganda to every aspect of western life, from radio, film,
television and print to even schools. The film “Red Nightmare” was taught as part of the
standard curriculum and is evidence of the media providing state-sanctioned indoctrination of the
populace. This act of media manipulation to create mass fear and paranoia cannot be
undervalued, it was the conscious effort of the powerful to marginalize unpopular opinion and
spread the dominate agenda. It also assisted in the solidification and polarization of cultural
differences and reinforced political ideology.
Media politization and propaganda techniques were also used as a direct tool against the
enemy. There was a direct contribution of the media to the war effort which saw the media
engaging in antagonistic psychological warfare. This was achieved by dissembling propaganda
into the Soviet Union via the radio, as an attempt to spread pro-capitalist sentiment into the
soviet population and create a more pro-Western culture. The Soviet media also used the
medium of radio within its own states and other countries as a form of transnational propaganda.
Because the Soviet media was state-censored; it sought to legitimize its appearance by
camouflaging its production origins. The USSR had many “international” radio stations that
were indeed located in the Soviet Republic. These actions of the media show the progression
from a seemingly more passive producer of public support and political compliance, to an active
tool of the war itself. The media on both sides of the divide were responsible for the production
of public opinion, the contribution of propaganda, and maintenance of antagonism via
psychological warfare. 10
However, many western media outlets, such as voice America, BBC, and, Vatican Radio,
sought a different approach. While maintaining political loyalty to their nation states, there
governmental brief was to project the positive aspects of their nations into the Soviet Union. This
was a form of gentle, yet cohesive, diplomacy. It sought to counteract Soviet propaganda by
subversively offering a positive view of the perceived enemy. While doing this, the Western
media soon realized the relevance of the fact that the Soviet Union was not a homogeneous
society. The colonial empire consisted of many nationalities, such as Ukrainians and those from
the Baltic States. By tailoring radio announcements to individual minorities, the West was able to

10
Chisem, J. (2012) ‘U.S Propaganda and the Cultural Cold War’

25
construct a long-term strategy of disrupting territorial integrity. This was profoundly antagonistic
to the Soviet state, which feared the growth of domestic separatists. 11
The media of the Cold War era can even be accredited with the marketing of the conflict.
It was American journalist Walter Lippmann who entitled the conflict as a ‘Cold War’ due to the
lack of direct military warfare. However, the lack of military conflict was only absent between
the UUSR and America. Because of the mutually assured destruction (M.A.D) of the two nuclear
powers; the Soviet Union and the West only engaged in proxy wars with satellite states.
One such example is the Vietnam War of 1955-1975. The U.S. government viewed
involvement in the war as an essential preventative measure to halt the communist takeover of
South Vietnam. This was part of the West’s strategy of Communism containment.
5.5 Media influence in the US: The Vietnam War

The Vietnam War was termed as the first ‘TV war’ by Michael Arlen. This was due to
the media coverage of the conflict now becoming exceedingly reported through television. It was
also accompanied with strong and emotive pictures, such as the Pulitzer Prize winner ‘Vietnam
Napalm’.
The television coverage of the conflict was relentless and lasted for several years. While
news coverage at the beginning of the conflict was often scripted and pro-Western, this reporting
was not. The media had unfettered access to the conflict and took more independence in their
reporting. Accordingly, the public reaction to constant exposure of war brutality also changed.
The Western media moved away from its position as a governmental mouthpiece, and
began to adopt a more watchdog approach. It was this change, combined with the graphic
reporting of the war, which has since been accredited with the thwarting of American victory. 12
The media’s role is seen to have stoked domestic anti-war sentiments in the American
public by presenting them with the atrocities of war into their own living rooms. This occurrence
shows a decline of the media’s role in maintaining antagonism and public support for conflict.
The most obvious and crucial act of the media, which eroded the public antagonism
towards the Soviet Union and support towards the conflict, was the publishing of the Pentagon
Papers. Several newspapers, including The New York Times and the Washington Post, printed
extracts of the governmental documents which were classified as top secret. These papers
revealed a deliberate government distortion of previously reported statistics that had been
perceived as undesirable.

11
Slaughter, A. (2012) ‘The Media Cold War’

12
Urban,G. (1997) ‘Radio Free Europe and the Pursuit of Democracy: My War Within the Cold War’. New York: Vail-Ballou
Press.

26
 The distortion concerned the numbers of causalities and successful operations, which
were significantly worse than previously stated. The media now evidenced to the people how the
government had misled them concerning the facts of war. What the media did here was
reposition themselves as the only reliable information distributer and eroded confidence in the
government. Subsequently, domestic reaction to this Cold War proxy conflict changed.
Domestic and international anti-war movements grew, and the media was responsible.
This saw the mass rejection of ‘McCarthyism’; the accusation of disloyalty to the country for
opposing the war which had worked before to marginalize dissent.
What it is now evident is that throughout the Cold War, the media played a central role in
the production and maintenance of antagonism between both sides of the conflict. Both the
Soviet and Western media outlets denatured each other as inferior and maintained “us and them”
rhetoric. Dominant views were enforced and detractors were marginalized. The media produced
virtuous national identities to legitimize themselves and denounce their enemies. 13
A substantial contribution of the media to the maintenance of Cold War antagonism was
the creation of a prolonged state of fear. Sensational propaganda and politicized reporting
developed a societal fear of imminent destruction and severe paranoia. This assisted the
government in the harvesting of a supportive population. The media also worked as a direct tool
of the conflict by communicating to the population of the Soviet Union. This in itself was an
extremely antagonistic action that worked very well as a soft power method of the west
(Bernhard, 1999).
When the media changed to an increasingly watchdog position of reporting, some of the
antagonism that it had produced against the Soviet Union became directed at the national
government. In all, the media was the Cold War’s protagonist in cultivating and maintaining
antagonism within the bipolar divide.
It achieved this with sensational reporting, and exploitation of cultural divides, the
maintenance of societal fear and the production of propaganda. It’s most explicit and direct
contribution to Cold War antagonism was the production of a subversive communication strategy
with the enemy’s populace.

13
Mikkonen, S. (2010) ‘Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History’. New York: Slavica Publishers.

27
 6. Media Influence in the US: September 11 Attacks

Anyone who watched the live broadcast of the terrorist attacks the morning of Sept. 11,
2001, understands why the tragedy will be forever tied to modern media.
In the 10 years since, the impact of 9/11 has reverberated through popular culture in ways
both subtle and explicit. The following is an examination of how the tragedy has changed
popular media.

6.1 The imagery of the twin towers

Prior to the attacks, the World Trade Center towers were iconic emblems of the New
York City skyline. In the aftermath, their monolithic image has taken on much more substantial
weight. Shortly after the attacks, the advertising campaign for the first “Spiderman” movie was
altered for obvious reasons. Years later, the towers were included in haunting establishing shots
of the FOX sci-fi series “Fringe” to illustrate an alternate universe storyline. Even the
documentary “Man on Wire,” about an illegal high-wire act performed between the towers in the
early 1970s, carries a peculiar sense of reverence for its location.

6.2 Talk show commentary

Many in the current generation are more likely to get news from satirical anchors like Jon
Stewart or Steven Colbert than from more traditional network talking heads. So maybe it was
appropriate that one of the most poignant comments after the attacks came from late-night
veteran David Letterman, who delivered a somber monologue during his first broadcast
following the tragedy. Taped in the heart of Manhattan, Letterman seemed to carry the heart of

28
the city on his sleeve as he praised the efforts of local firefighters at Ground Zero and the
fundraising efforts of a tiny town in Montana as evidence of the best of the American spirit.

6.3 Zenith of reality television

The 9/11 attacks didn’t give birth to the reality genre, and 9/11 wasn’t the first tragedy
Americans watched on television. But in a decade where our popular culture became obsessed
with the consumption of unscripted “real-life” programming featuring every-day, ordinary
people, the coverage of 9/11 was particularly memorable.

6.4 New era of anti-war films

Conflicts like World War II and the Civil War have been the subject of countless films
over the years, and the war in Vietnam almost single-handedly created the anti-war film sub-
genre. Films like “United 93” and Oliver Stone’s “World Trade Center” celebrated the heroism
of those called to action as a result of the tragedy. But aside from critical successes like “The
Hurt Locker,” the anti-war films that came in response to the ensuing war in Iraq have failed to
live up to the iconic standards of Vietnam epics like “The Deer Hunter” or “Apocalypse Now.”

6.5 Music of protest and patriotism

Similarly, American history has always been reflected in the music it inspired, whether it
was through patriotic standards like “The Star-Spangled Banner” and “Over There,” or even
through the protest rock that came in reaction to the war in Vietnam. In the wake of 9/11, Toby
Keith’s "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue" captured the feelings of many Americans, and
later on after the invasion of Iraq, the Dixie Chicks became the center of the protest firestorm
with their criticism of President George W. Bush.

6.6 Jack Bauer becomes a household name

It’s hard to imagine how the television show “24” would have played out had it been
released in the 1980s. Agent Jack Bauer might have had a tough time coming up with new ways
to fight the Soviets season after season. But the persistent threat of international terrorism was a
constant source of story opportunity in the post-9/11 era, and the real-time format of "24" made
it a television benchmark for eight seasons.

29
6.7 New boogeyman for the silver screen

For decades, the go-to bad guys for American films were those crafty Cold War-era
Russians. But whether it was Alan Arkin’s bumbling submarine crew in “The Russians are
Coming, The Russians are Coming” or the invading paratroops of “Red Dawn,” the threat always
had a home base, and we always knew we could strike back (just ask Slim Pickens). Post-9/11,
the threat was faceless, and it was everywhere. Films like “Traitor” brought the boogeyman next
door, and even the resurgence of zombie films in the past decade have nodded to the terror of a
threat that moves like a disease before it attacks as an army.
6.8 The Rise of Michael Moore

Names like Osama bin Laden and George W. Bush will always be tied to the events of
9/11. But few owe their presence in the public discussion to 9/11 more than filmmaker Michael
Moore, whose accusatory documentary “Fahrenheit: 9/11” catapulted him into the public eye and
represented a benchmark in the trend towards agenda-driven documentary filmmaking.

6.9 Airport scenes

There is perhaps no more persistent evidence of the impact of 9/11 than the experience
American citizens encounter whenever they go to an airport. So, in a world where security is
airtight and terminals are only reserved for passengers, certain Hollywood clichés have had to
adapt. In short, if Leading Man A has suddenly decided that Leading Woman B is the love of his
life, he’d probably better catch her before she makes it through the baggage check. Because a
romantic sprint through the terminal is probably not going to result in a happy ending.

6.10 The image of the firemen

While firemen have always enjoyed a positive image in popular culture, the heroism of
New York’s firefighters helped to propel the profession front and center in the public
consciousness. Whether it came through gritty cable television programs like “Rescue Me” or
dramatic popcorn movies like “Ladder 49,” popular media began to pay a little closer attention to
the guys running into the burning buildings while everyone else was running out.

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 7. Media influence in the US: Terrorism

The media have become the main battleground in today's struggle for political power
because they are able to manage the perception of both leaders and broad masses in America.
The way the media present their news depends on two factors:

1. Technical issues such as access to the source of information, form of news and time constraint.
2. Political values of superimposed persons in the media and the scope of state censorship.

There are significant differences in how the media portray terrorism, but certain patterns
can be perceived. First, terrorism usually gets huge media coverage by presenting terrorist
violence through smashing images on the American media.
This phenomenon is linked to the constant desire of the media in the US for dramatic
images, and interviews with local witnesses further reinforce the negative view of terrorist
violence.
As terrorists try to provoke as much attention as possible, the target of their actions in a
propaganda sense is the enemy public or observers who do not believe in their goals. The
simplest explanation of the public's level of concern is that it is directly linked to the amount of
terrorism, that is, more terrorism causes more concern and vice versa. By highlighting terrorist
violence by American media before terrorist motives, they determine how the public will receive
this question, and thus interpret in their own way the ideological and political goals of the said
actors.
The positive role of the media is very important in preventing the transition from
potential into actual terrorism in the United States.

31
 American media do not help preventing the emergence of terrorism through the
presentation of good information, but in line with the interests of certain circles that distort the
image of the American public. American media have major problems in identifying terrorism,
and therefore each act of violence is defined in a way that suits them, which in the American
public creates antagonism toward certain circles of people, nations or members of other faiths.

8. Media Influence in the US: Elections

Politicians are always quick to blame the media when a news story doesn't put them in a
favorable light. But politicians use media to win elections by getting the exposure they need to
reach voters. Reporters have no choice but to cover the people chosen to lead the government. In
election years, people who work in media should prepare themselves for the manipulation they'll
likely face when a politician's quest for office runs head-on into the media's desire to seek the
truth.
Rallies are designed to show the voters' spontaneous excitement for a candidate. There's
nothing wrong with that. But those homemade signs that you see waving in the air are often
drawn by campaign workers themselves, not people at home. Sometimes the crowds are even
made up of campaign workers and volunteers so that the TV cameras don't capture an empty
room. They'll be dressed so they appear to be moms and dads, factory workers and teachers, but
that can be just an illusion. If a candidate is doing poorly with young voters, expect to see college
students and people in their 20s in the background. Race and gender are also considered when
deciding who gets to sit or stand behind the candidate during a campaign speech.
Another way politicians manipulate the media are the so-called "News-less News
Conferences". The sure-fire way for a candidate to get media coverage is to invite reporters to a
news conference for an "important announcement." That announcement could be the same tired
10-point economic plan that the candidate has announced twice a week for the past six months.
Reporters may be told the candidate will be happy to talk about why he's in favor of good
schools, but any other topic, like his recent sex scandal, is off limits. Another common trick is to
say that the candidate is really busy and can't take any questions at all, so he can be on time for
his next event. People who organize news conferences don't make accommodating your every
wish their top priority.

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 In addition, "Exclusive" One-on-One Interviews nowadays are a big hit. Nothing tempts
reporters like a chance for an exclusive interview. A campaign will sometimes dangle these
offers just before election day to guarantee news coverage. Campaign experts know an exclusive
interview will be promoted heavily and be given more space in a newspaper or more time in a
TV newscast than a typical day-to-day campaign story. That's free publicity.
TV Commercials and Print Ads and fairly dominant on the political scene. Any candidate
with enough money will spend some of it on TV and print advertisements. Just like all other ads,
the aim is to sell a product, not necessarily to tell the entire truth about the candidate or his
campaign.
That's no surprise, but you may not know about the rules that give a political campaign an
advantage over the media. Thanks to campaign laws concerning the media, ad space has to be
sold at the lowest available rate. Not only that, media outlets have very little control over what is
said in a political advertisement, even if it is misleading or downright false.

The Communications Act of 1934 outlined how political ads were to be handled by radio
stations. Today, many of those same rules apply. Clips from newspaper stories or TV newscasts
can even be used without permission, as part of "fair use" guidelines -- even if the clip is twisted
to imply the exact opposite of what was originally said.
Friendly, Harmless Media Coverage in the US has been a part of political world. Ever
wonder why a politician who has no time to be a guest on a show like Meet the Press is suddenly
available to appear on The Late Show with David Letterman? It's not because his schedule
suddenly opened up. President Obama has even taken a seat next to Letterman. That type of
setting allows a politician to be on TV without being asked pesky questions about his policies.
For a little-known candidate, this experience is a media gold mine. He can talk about his
family and his hopes for a better world for all of us. A talk show host is likely to ask softball
questions to let the candidate appear relaxed and human.
A call-in talk radio show provides an additional opportunity. A good campaign manager
will do everything possible to make sure she can plant phone calls that are taken on the air. A
host who takes call after call from people thrilled to just get the chance to talk to the candidate
should suspect that his show has been taken over by the campaign. Campaigns know that finding
the right political radio talk show can help win elections.
At the height of a campaign, it's no coincidence that a magazine has a cover story that
takes you inside the home of the candidate. You can see his wife baking cookies for charity in
their newly remodeled kitchen and get her secret recipes.
This spread can do more for a campaign than the candidate's position statement on
fighting crime. Readers will feel as though they know the entire family, and that familiarity
brings support at the ballot box. It's a delicate balance between getting a story that might boost
sales and knowing that you're being used.

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 It's typical for a candidate to criticize traditional media for not allowing "the whole story"
to get out to the voters. A candidate will moan that his entire 45-minute news conference wasn't
aired in its entirety on a 30-minute newscast, which would be impossible.
Today, a candidate can bypass broadcast and print media to reach his potential voters
through social media. A Facebook page can show he has 20,000 fans, offer his entire news
conference and most importantly, allow him a totally unfiltered way to speak. President Obama
had a successful web strategy that helped him win the 2008 presidential campaign.
A wise candidate should realize that social media is a tool, but it has yet to replace the
value of getting his face on the front page of the paper or on the 6:00 p.m. newscast. While the
candidates may tout their "grass roots campaign" using social media to get in direct touch with
voters, they know they need you desperately to win.
Politicians who are pleased with a particular news story will sometimes praise the
reporter for fairness and objectivity. When the story's not so positive, claims of media bias will
usually pour out from the campaign.
Conclusion

The history of media research on the impact of public opinion was characterized by three
different phases of influence in which dominant theoretical perspectives were formulated in
accordance with the reigning beliefs about the importance of communication in the United States
and primarily concerned the political effects of the media in the United States.
During the discussion of the issue of the influence of the media in the US we have shown
that the impact is only important when it has a concrete result or an effect. Untold many
examples in American history about the influence of the media on important events in society are
only proof of the enormous impact of the media not only on the political but also on the
sociological and psychological plane.
Throughout history, the media in the United States were one of the most important
segments of social life; their propaganda role in different periods of human history made the
world different from that of the two World Wars in the 20th century to the present day when US
diplomacy and political struggle relies heavily on the media in the United States.
During the countless research we have dealt with, it has been proven that Americans
believe in their media and form their own attitudes and beliefs based on them. The role of the
media and the impact on the American people is most evident during the US election, in which
the media play the most important role in forming a public opinion.
The information in the world today is mild and the media is the main source of
information for most US citizens, which makes them subject to many negative and positive
influences of the major media in the US.

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Works Cited

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Ward, Stephen J. A. “Ethics for the New Investigative Newsroom
Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane / Becker, Annette: 1914-1918. Understanding the Great War,
London 2002: Profile
Media and War: An Analisys of World War II and vietnam, Ryan Bourque, Amstud History 11,
2014.
Doherty,T (2003) ‘Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture’
New York: Columbia University Press.
Bernhard, N. (1999) ‘U.S Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947-1960’. Cambridge:
The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Chisem, J. (2012) ‘U.S Propaganda and the Cultural Cold War’
Slaughter, A. (2012) ‘The Media Cold War’
Urban,G. (1997) ‘Radio Free Europe and the Pursuit of Democracy: My War Within the Cold
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Mikkonen, S. (2010) ‘Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History’. New York:
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https://ethics.journalism.wisc.edu/resources/digital-media-ethics/
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concept-media-ethics-in-the-digital-age

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https://www.slideshare.net/ianwienclawski/a-brief-history-of-the-media-in-the-usa
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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