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Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM
Province of Rizal

Morong Campus
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

Week 11-12

Vocabulary Enrichment

Teaching word meanings should be a way for students to define their world, to move from

light to dark, to a more fine-grained description of the colors that surround us.—Steven

Stahl

A RATIONALE DIRECTLY ADDRESSING VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Successful comprehension is, in some significant part, dependent on the reader's knowledge of

word meanings in a given passage. Baker, Simmons, and Kame'enui1 state, "The relation between

reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge is strong and unequivocal. Although the causal

direction of the relation is not understood clearly, there is evidence that the relationship is largely

reciprocal." The good news for teachers from research in vocabulary development is that vocabulary

instruction does improve reading comprehension (Stahl2). However, not all approaches to teaching

word meanings improve comprehension. This chapter will describe some of the most practical and

effective strategies that high-school teachers can employ with diverse learners to enhance vocabulary

development and increase reading comprehension.

1 Baker, S. K., D. C. Simmons, and E. J. Kame'enui. "Vocabulary acquistion: Instructionaland curricular basics and implications." In D. C. Simmons and
E. J. Kame'enui (eds.), What Reading Research Tells Us About Children With Diverse Learning Needs. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
1988, pp. 219–238.
2 Stahl, S. A. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books, 1999.

WHAT DOESN'T WORK?

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There are a number of traditional teaching practices related to vocabulary that deserve to be left in

the "instructional dustbin." The key weakness in all of these practices is the limited or rote interaction

students have with the new word/concept.

most common less effective approaches

1. Look them up. Certainly, dictionaries have their place, especially during writing, but the act of

looking up a word and copying a definition is not likely to result in vocabulary learning (especially if

there are long lists of unrelated words to look up and for which to copy the definitions).

2. Use them in a sentence. Writing sentences with new vocabulary AFTER some understanding

of the word is helpful; however to assign this task before the study of word meaning is of little value.

3. Use context. There is little research to suggest that context is a very reliable source of learning

word meanings. Nagy found that students reading at grade level had about a one-twentieth chance of

learning the meaning of a word from context. This, of course, is not to say that context is unimportant

but that students need a broader range of instructional guidance than the exhortation "Use context."

4. Memorize definitions. Rote learning of word meanings is likely to results, at best, in the ability

to parrot back what is not clearly understood.

The common shortcoming in all of these less effective approaches is the lack of active student

involvement in connecting the new concept/meaning to their existing knowledge base.

Vocabulary learning, like most other learning, must be based on the learner's active engagement in

constructing understanding, not simply on passive re-presenting of information from a text or lecture.

WHAT DOES WORK?

Reviewing the research literature on vocabulary instruction leads to the conclusion that there is no

single best strategy to teach word meanings but that all effective strategies require students to go

beyond the definitional and forge connections between the new and the known. Nagy3 summarizes

the research on effective vocabulary teaching as coming down to three critical notions:

1. Integration—connecting new vocabulary to prior knowledge

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2. Repetition—encountering/using the word/concept many times

3. Meaningful use—multiple opportunities to use new words in reading, writing and soon discussion.

4. Increase the Amount of Independent Reading

The largest influence on students' vocabulary is the sheer volume of reading they do, especially wide

reading that includes a rich variety of texts. This presents a particularly difficult challenge for

underprepared high-school students who lack the reading habit.

Strategies that can help motivate reluctant readers:

1. Matching text difficulty to student reading level and personal interests

2. Reading incentive programs that include taking quizzes on books read (e.g., Accelerated

Reader, Reading Counts)

3. Regular discussion, such as literature circles, book clubs, quick reviews, of what students are

reading

4. Setting weekly/individual goals for reading volume

5. Adding more structure to Sustained Silent Reading by including a 5-minute quick-write at the

end of the reading period, then randomly selecting three or four papers to read/grade to increase

student accountability.

STRATEGIES FOR VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Words that are new to students but represent familiar concepts can be addressed using a number of

relatively quick instructional tactics. Many of these (e.g., synonyms, antonyms, examples) are optimal

for prereading and oral reading, which call for more expedient approaches.

1. Teach synonyms. Provide a synonym students know, (e.g., link stringent to the known word

strict).
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2. Teach antonyms. Not all words have antonyms, but thinking about for those that do, opposite

requires their students to evaluate the critical attributes of the words in question.

3. Paraphrase definitions. Requiring students to use their own words increases connection

making and provides the teacher with useful informal assessment—"Do they really get it?"

4. Provide examples. The more personalized the better. An example for the new word egregious

might be Ms. Kinsella's 110-page reading assignment was egregious indeed!

5. Provide nonexamples. Similar to using antonyms, providing non-examples requires students to

evaluate a word's attributes. Invite students to explain why it is not an example.

6. Ask for sentences that "show you know." Students construct novel sentences confirming their

understanding of a new word, using more than one new word per sentence to show that connections

can also be useful.

7. Teach word sorting. Provide a list of vocabulary words from a reading selection and have

students sort them into various categories (e.g., parts of speech, branches of government). Students

can re-sort words into "guess my sort" using categories of their own choosing.

INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL VOCABULARY LEARNING

How do we close the gap for students who have limited or inadequate vocabularies? The National

Reading Panel (2000) concluded that there is no single research-based method for developing

vocabulary and closing the gap. From its analysis, the panel recommended using a variety of indirect

(incidental) and direct (intentional) methods of vocabulary instruction.

Incidental Vocabulary Learning

Most students acquire vocabulary incidentally through indirect exposure to words at home and at

school—by listening and talking, by listening to books read aloud to them, and by reading widely on

their own.
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The amount of reading is important to long-term vocabulary development (Cunningham and

Stanovich, 1998). Extensive reading provides students with repeated or multiple exposures to words

and is also one of the means by which students see vocabulary in rich contexts (Kamil and Hiebert,

2005).

Intentional Vocabulary Learning

Students need to be explicitly taught methods for intentional vocabulary learning. According to

Michael Graves (2000), effective intentional vocabulary instruction includes:

• Teaching specific words (rich, robust instruction) to support understanding of texts containing

those words.

• Teaching word-learning strategies that students can use independently.

• Promoting the development of word consciousness and using word play activities to motivate

and engage students in learning new words.

RESEARCH-SUPPORTED VOCABULARY-LEARNING STRATEGIES

Students need a wide range of independent word-learning strategies. Vocabulary instruction should

aim to engage students in actively thinking about word meanings, the relationships among words, and

how we can use words in different situations. This type of rich, deep instruction is most likely to

influence comprehension (Graves, 2006; McKeown and Beck, 2004).

Student-Friendly Definitions

The meaning of a new word should be explained to students rather than just providing a dictionary

definition for the word—which may be difficult for students to understand. According to Isabel Beck,

two basic principles should be followed in developing student-friendly explanations or definitions

(Beck et al., 2013):

• Characterize the word and how it is typically used.

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• Explain the meaning using everyday language—language that is accessible and meaningful to

the student.

Note:

Sometimes a word’s natural context (in text or literature) is not informative or helpful for deriving word

meanings (Beck et al., 2013). It is useful to intentionally create and develop instructional contexts that

provide strong clues to a word’s meaning. These are usually created by teachers, but they can

sometimes be found in commercial reading programs.

Defining Words Within Context

Research shows that when words and easy-to-understand explanations are introduced in context,

knowledge of those words increases (Biemiller and Boote, 2006) and word meanings are better

learned (Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986). When an unfamiliar word is likely to affect comprehension, the

most effective time to introduce the word’s meaning may be at the moment the word is met in the text.

Using Context Clues

Research by Nagy and Scott (2000) showed that students use contextual analysis to infer the

meaning of a word by looking closely at surrounding text. Since students encounter such an

enormous number of words as they read, some researchers believe that even a small improvement in

the ability to use context clues has the potential to produce substantial, long-term vocabulary growth

(Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985; Nagy, Anderson, and Herman, 1987; Swanborn and de

Glopper, 1999).

Sketching the Words

For many students, it is easier to remember a word’s meaning by making a quick sketch that

connects the word to something personally meaningful to the student. The student applies each

target word to a new, familiar context. The student does not have to spend a lot of time making a

great drawing. The important thing is that the sketch makes sense and helps the student connect with

the meaning of the word.

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Applying the Target Words

Applying the target words provides another context for learning word meanings. When students are

challenged to apply the target words to their own experiences, they have another opportunity to

understand the meaning of each word at a personal level. This allows for deep processing of the

meaning of each word.

Analyzing Word Parts

The ability to analyze word parts also helps when students are faced with unknown vocabulary. If

students know the meanings of root words and affixes, they are more likely to understand a word

containing these word parts. Explicit instruction in word parts includes teaching meanings of word

parts and disassembling and reassembling words to derive meaning

Semantic Mapping

Semantic maps help students develop connections among words and increase learning of vocabulary

words (Baumann et al., 2003; Heimlich and Pittleman, 1986). For example, by writing an example, a

non-example, a synonym, and an antonym, students must deeply process the word persist.

Word Consciousness

Word consciousness is an interest in and awareness of words (Anderson and Nagy, 1992; Graves

and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Students who are word conscious are aware of the words around them—

those they read and hear and those they write and speak (Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Word-

conscious students use words skillfully. They are aware of the subtleties of word meaning. They are

curious about language, and they enjoy playing with words and investigating the origins and histories

of words.

Teachers need to take word-consciousness into account throughout their instructional day—not just

during vocabulary lessons (Scott and Nagy, 2004). It is important to build a classroom “rich in words”

(Beck et al., 2002). Students should have access to resources such as dictionaries, thesauruses,
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word walls, crossword puzzles, Scrabble® and other word games, literature, poetry books, joke

books, and word-play activities.

Teachers can promote the development of word consciousness in many ways:

• Language categories: Students learn to make finer distinctions in their word choices if they

understand the relationships among words, such as synonyms, antonyms, and homographs.

• Figurative language: The ability to deal with figures of speech is also a part of word-

consciousness (Scott and Nagy 2004). The most common figures of speech are similes, metaphors,

and idioms.

STRATEGIES FOR CONCEPTUALLY CHALLENGING WORDS

Selecting and teaching conceptually demanding words is essential to ensuring that diverse learners

are able to grapple with the "big ideas" crucial to understanding a challenging text. Complex concepts

require more multidimensional teaching strategies. The next section will elaborate on a number of

these techniques: list-group-label, possible sentences, word analysis (affixes and roots), and concept

mapping.

List-Group-Label

This is a form of structured brainstorming designed to help students identify what they know about a

concept and the words related to the concept while provoking a degree of analysis and critical

thinking. These are the directions to students:

1. Think of all the words related to ______. (a key "big idea" in the text)

2. Group the words listed by some shared characteristics or commonalties.

3. Decide on a label for each group.

4. Try to add words to the categories on the organized lists.

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Working in small groups or pairs, each group shares with the class its method of categorization and

the thinking behind its choices, while adding words from other class members. Teachers can extend

this activity by having students convert their organized concepts into a Semantic Map which a visual

expression of their thinking.

List-group-label is an excellent prereading activity to build on prior knowledge, introduce critical

concepts, and ensure attention during selection reading.

Simple strategy for teaching word meanings and generating considerable class discussion.

1. The teacher chooses six to eight words from the text that may pose difficulty for students.

These words are usually key concepts in the text.

2. Next, the teacher chooses four to six words that students are more likely to know something

about.

3. The list of ten to twelve words is put on the chalk board or overhead projector. The teacher

provides brief definitions as needed.

4. Students are challenged to devise sentences that contain two or more words from the list.

5. All sentences that students come up with, both accurate and inaccurate, are listed and

discussed.

6. Students now read the selection.

7. After reading, revisit the Possible Sentences and discuss whether they could be true based on

the passage or how they could be modified to true.

Word Analysis / Teaching Word Parts

Many underprepared readers lack basic knowledge of word origins or etymology, such as Latin and

Greek roots, as well as discrete understanding of how a prefix or suffix can alter the meaning of a

word. Learning clusters of words that share a common origin can help students understand content-
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area texts and connect new words to those already known. For example, a secondary teacher

(Allen9) reported reading about a character who suffered from amnesia. Teaching students that the

prefix a– derives from Greek and means "not," while the base mne– means "memory" reveals the

meaning. After judicious teacher scaffolding, students were making connections to various words in

which the prefix a– changed the meaning of a base word (e.g., amoral, atypical). This type of

contextualized direct teaching meets the immediate need of understanding an unknown word while

building generative knowledge that supports students in figuring out difficult words in future reading.

Learning and reviewing high frequency affixes will equip students with some basic tools for word

analysis, which will be especially useful when they are prompted to apply them in rich and varied

learning contexts. The charts below summarize some of the affixes worth considering depending on

your students' prior knowledge and English proficiency.

Prefix Meaning Prefixed Words Examples

un not; reversal of

________________________________________________________

re again, back, really

________________________________________________________

in / im in, into, not

_________________________________________________________

dis away, apart, negative

________________________________________________________

en / em in; within; on

________________________________________________________

mis wrong

________________________________________________________
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pre before

________________________________________________________

a not; in, on; without

________________________________________________________

Similarly, a quick look at the most common suffixes reveals a comparable pattern of relatively few

suffixes accounting for a large percentage of suffixed words.

Suffix Meaning Examples

-s, -es more than one; verb marker drawers,

__________________________________________________

-ed in the past; quality, state

Protected,________________________________________________

-ing when you do something; quality, state

walking,___________________________________________________

-ly how something is safely

___________________________________________________

-er, -or one who, what, that, drummer,

___________________________________________________

-tion, -sion state, quality; act

action_______________________________________________________

-able, -ible able to be disposable,

reversible__________________________________________

-al, -ial related to, like final,

partial___________________________________________________

There are far too many affixes to directly teach them all; however, it is important to realize that

relatively few affixes account for the majority of affixed words in English. Thus, it is helpful to explicitly
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teach high-utility affixes (meaning and pronunciation) and assist students in making connections as

they encounter new vocabulary containing these parts. Once these basic affixes have been

mastered, it can be useful to explore more complex or less frequent word parts, such as the following:

Prefixes Meaning Example

multi- many

multimedia___________________________________________________

pan- all pandemic,

___________________________________________________

micro- very small

microcosm___________________________________________________

pro- in favor of, before

protect___________________________________________________

Suffixes

-less without; not

useless___________________________________________________

-ism state, quality; act

realism___________________________________________________

Additionally, focused word study that builds student knowledge of Greek and Latin roots, or bases,

can be of significant assistance to secondary students. Diverse learners in particular, are unlikely to

have read enough or engaged in enough academic conversations beyond school in which key roots

were clarified. Linguists estimate that well over 50 percent of polysyllabic words found in English texts

are of Latin or Greek derivation, underlining the importance of ensuring that students learn "English

from the roots up."

Allen, J. Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4–12. York: ME Stenhouse 1999.
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Common Latin and Greek Roots

Root Meaning Origin Examples

-aud- hear Latin audio,

audition___________________________________________________

-astro- star Greek astrology,

astronaut___________________________________________________

-bio- life Greek biography,

biology___________________________________________________

-dict- speak, tell Latin dictate,

predict___________________________________________________

-geo- earth Greek geology,

geography___________________________________________________

-meter- measure Greek

thermometer___________________________________________________

-port- carry Latin transport,

portable___________________________________________________

-phono- sound Greek

microphone___________________________________________________

-duc(t)- lead Latin deduct, produce,

educate___________________________________________________

URS

MORE ON VOCABULARY ENRICHMENT

C’s of Vocabulary
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1. Collocation- To collocate is to “ group or place together in some system or order.” When a word is

learned in can be thought of in terms of another word it is combined or chunked with.”

Ex. Sweet

Sugar is sweet

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

Sweet potato

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

2. Clining- A cline is a graded sequence of difference within species. Word cline would fit into the

same statement but each would have different meaning.

The water is ________________.

Bashful shy model

Intelligent witty smart genius

3. Clustering- it is grouping of similar and related things. Such words may not be clined because it is

not easy to show a sequential degree of meaning. Thus, they may be written around the word which

serves\as a cover term. The words may be related because they are similar in meaning, they belong

to the sane classification; they have the same characteristics.

Ex. Attractive, lovely, beautiful, charming

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4. Configuration- It is the arrangement of the parts of something. It refers to the information given

through the size and shape of the letters as well as through the length or the number of letters there

are in the word.

Ex.

5. Creativity- To create is “ to cause or to come into existence.” This is characterized by originality of

thought or by te use of the imagination. This includes :

Classification and Uses of Words. Give example for each:

1. Neologisms- These are newly coined words or phrases or familiar words used in a new sense. For

instance, a new invention or discovery will mean a new term or name to identify it.

Ex. “ bread “________________,_______________,_______________

2. Loan words- Words from other languages are borrowed and incorporated into the xisting

vocabulary.

Ex. “tsunami”

________________,_______________,_______________

3.Names of persons and places. A word may come from the name of the person or place associated

with the word it describes.

Ex. Louis Pasteur- Pasteurization

Agapito Flores- Flourescent

________________,_______________,_______________

4. Words from Literature. The names of characters and places and sometimes events have become

the source of a great number of words.

Ex. A beautiful woman- Venus

A traitor- Judas________________,_______________,_______________
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5.Obsolete Words- These are words whose meanings have gone out of use.

Ex. “ coy” careful

“ rop” – rope

6.Archaic words- words or meanings are no longer used commonly but still applies in special

situations.

Ex. You- thou Thy – you Brethren- brother

7.Neologism- newly coined words. This should be used with caution, a writer opt to use words that fin

general acceptance.

Improvisations sometimes lead to malapropism. Malapropism- it is the humorous application of

words. Confusion on words because of each sound.

8.Dialectal Words- a dialect is a form of the native language spoken by a particular group of person.

9.Localism and provincialisms- these are words originated from dialects or simply dialectal words. For

accuracy, this should be avoided because these may cause confusion in as much as their meanings

are useful only in the areas or localities they are spoken.

10.Shoptalk- This is composed of technical words of those doing the same work or having the same

way of life; the language that people use in discussing their particular line of activity.

Avoid introducing words that are understood only by the members of a particular group. It

should be defined or explained for the benefit of common readers.

11.Illiteracies- words which are in bad taste or with gramMATical errors. The use of this shows poor

breeding and lack of formal schooling.

Ex. Ain’t am not

He don’t

Higher your hand- raise your hand higher

Gonna
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12.Colloquialism- These are conversational words or phrases permissible in an informal style of

speaking and writing. Theses expressions are part of standard English since everyone uses them but

may not in formal context or serious writings.

Ex. Words found in news reports, plays, stories, and humorous writing.

13.Idiomatic Usage- “ Idiom “ is an expression peculiar to the language. Two words combined

together which give another meaning. Idiomatic use of prepositions may prove difficult. If you are

uncertain as to which preposition to use with a given word, check the word in the dictionary.

Ex. Exact diction-

In order to get our message across in writing, it is necessary to use the appropriate or exact word.

This is known as precise diction, in contrast to imprecise or inexact diction. One possible source of

inexact diction is similarity of pronunciation and spelling of words or expressions, as can be seen in

the following examples: maybe vs. may be, awhile vs. a while, adapt vs. adopt. This problem can be

addressed by understanding the usage of a word, especially if there is another word which sounds or

is spelled like it.

Improprieties- Standard English that are misused in meaning.

Nouns which are improperly substituted as a verb

Adjectives for adverbs dances good, Awful short

Prepositions for conjunctions

Nouns used as verbs grassing a lawn

Suppering to a party

Ambitioned to be an actress

Verbs as nouns eats, a repeat, an invite

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Adjectives used an adverbs

Verb forms come for came

Don’t for doen’t

Say for said

Done for did

Set for sit

Seen for saw

SYNTHESIZING:

Vocabulary is important for future teachers as everyone is expected to engage into different kinds of

learners. There are ways to enhance vocabulary skills. It is also important to utilize the correct choice

of words on the kinds of audience and situation one faces.

1. Highlight Greek and Latin roots as they come up in your readings—briefly for less important

words and in more depth for essential concepts.

2. Associate the new word derived from a root with more generally known words in the students'

lexicon. Visual organizers can be helpful.

3. Encourage students to look for additional words that share the newly learned root in their

independent reading and reading in other content classes.

4. Encourage students to use words containing newly learned roots in their writing,

conversations, or discussions.

Concept Mapping/Clarifying Routine (Ellis)

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supports the strategy of teaching concepts by

1. identifying the critical attributes of the word.ote:

2. giving the category to which the word belongs.

3. discussing examples of the concept.

4. discussing nonexamples.

Note: Others have had success extending this approach by guiding students through representation

of the concept in a visual map or graphic organizer.

concept mapping steps:

1. Select a critical concept / word to teach. Enter it on a graphic clarifying map like the sample for

satire.

2. List the clarifiers or critical attributes that explicate the concept.

3. List the core idea—a summary statement or brief definition.

4. Brainstorm for knowledge connections—personal links from students' word views/prior

knowledge (encourage idiosyncratic / personal links).

5. Give an example of the concept; link to clarifiers: "Why is this an example of ___?"

6. Give nonexamples. List nonexamples: "How do you know ___ is not an example of ___?"

7. Construct a sentence that "shows you know."

Term: SATIRE

Core Idea: Any Work That Uses Wit to Attack Foolishness

Example

A story that exposes the acts of corrupt politicians by making fun of them

Nonexample
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A story that exposes the acts of corrupt politicians through factual reporting

Example sentence

Charles Dickens used satire to expose the problems of common folks in working-class England.

Clarifiers

• Can be oral or written.

• Ridicule or expose vice in a clever way.

• Can include irony exaggeration, name-calling, understatement.

• Are usually based on a real person or event. Knowledge Connections

• Political cartoons on the editorial pages of our paper.

• Stories TV comics tell to make fun of the President—like Saturday Night Live.

• My mom's humor at dinner time!

Tips for Using the Clarifying Routine

1. Provide all students with a blank clarifying map, and guide them in filling it out while you model

your thinking on an overhead projector.

2. In the "knowledge connections" encourage students to generate their own idiosyncratic links—

anything to remind them of the concept. Total accuracy is not as important as forging the cognitive

linkage to the core idea.

3. Focus on nonexamples. This challenges students to explicate "why ___ is not an example of

___." This level of analysis will greatly assist understanding.

4. Vary use of the routine as students become familiar with the steps, turning more and more of

the process over to student direction / control; for example, providing students with a partially-filled-in

map if their prior knowledge or proficiency in English requires more support.

5. Challenge students to fill out their own clarifying maps.

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AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT OF VOCABULARY MASTERY

Because vocabulary plays such a central role in English language arts instruction, it makes sense to

assess students' comprehension and mastery of essential words and phrases introduced during the

course of a unit or lesson. However, so much new vocabulary may be highlighted in any given lesson

that it makes sense to prioritize words for students and to clearly stipulate those that are most

important and that you intend to include in an assessment.

During language arts instruction and assessment, it is helpful to make a distinction between words

that should simply enhance a student's receptive vocabulary and words that should ideally enter a

student's expressive vocabulary. A student's receptive vocabulary comprises to words that are

recognized and understood if presented in a rich and meaningful context when he or she is listening

or reading. This does not mean that the student necessarily feels comfortable using words in either

conversation or writing. A student's actual expressive vocabulary is those words that the individual

can use both confidently and appropriately. When designing vocabulary assessments, it seems

reasonable to include a majority of foundational words that are truly critical to a student's grade level

academic lexicon—more high-frequency terms that the learners are likely to encounter both within

and outside of the language arts classroom as they progress in their schooling.

Traditional vocabulary assessments can reveal little about a student's actual word mastery,

particularly those assessments that require simple matching, a written definition, or use of the word in

an original sentence. While a student may be able to recall a memorized definition and an example

sentence provided by the dictionary or the instructor, there is no guarantee that the student can

actually use the word with facility. Many students have refined their skills in rote memorization and

succeed with these rote-level assessments. Then a week later they proceed to misapply the terms in

the next writing assignment. For this reason, teachers should refrain from designing quizzes that

merely tap into students' short-term memorization and should instead require critical thinking and

creative application.
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There are many ways to design more authentic vocabulary assessments. Following are three

meaningful and alternative assessment formats that require relatively little preparation time:

Assessment Formats

1. Select only four to six important words and embed each in an accessible and contextualized

sentence followed by a semicolon. Ask students to add another sentence after the semicolon that

clearly demonstrates their understanding of the italicized word as it is used in this context. This

assessment format will discourage students from rote memorization and merely recycling a sample

sentence covered during a lesson.

Example: Mr. Lamont had the most eclectic wardrobe of any teacher on the high-school staff;

2. Present four to six sentences each containing an italicized word from the study list and ask

students to decide whether each word makes sense in this context. If yes, the student must justify

why the sentence makes sense. If no, the student must explain why it is illogical, and change the part

of the sentence that doesn't make sense.

Example: Mr. Lamont had the most eclectic wardrobe of any teacher on the high-school staff; rain or

shine, he wore the same predictable brown loafers, a pair of black or brown pants, a white shirt, and a

beige sweater vest.

3. Write a relatively brief passage (one detailed paragraph) that includes six to ten words from the

study list. Then, delete these words and leave blanks for students to complete. This modified cloze

assessment will force students to scrutinize the context and draw upon a deeper understanding of the

words' meanings. Advise students to first read the entire passage and to then complete the blanks by

drawing from their study list. As an incentive for students to prepare study cards or more detailed

notes, they can be permitted to use these personal references during the quiz (particularly if you have

designed a more challenging passage).

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Because these qualitative and authentic assessments require more rigorous analysis and application

than most objective test formats, it seems fair to allow students to first practice with the format as a

class exercise and even complete occasional tests in a cooperative group. Another suggestion is to

frequently assign brief vocabulary quizzes rather than occasionally assign expansive tests, to

encourage students to review vocabulary regularly and to facilitate transfer to long-term memory.

SUMMARY

In sum, there are countless additional strategies that teachers can employ to assist students in

building their vocabularies. However, it is essential to keep in mind that promoting extensive reading,

carefully selecting which words to teach quickly and which to teach extensively, and choosing

strategies that help students make cognitive connections between the new and the known are at the

heart of effective vocabulary building. Last, the more intangible notion of taking delight in the world of

words, modeling one's own love of language, pushing the "lexical envelope" is less subject to

research study but nonetheless certainly worthy of consideration.

REFERENCES

Allen, J. Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4–12. York, ME: Stenhouse 1999.
Baker, S. K., D. C. Simmons, and E. J. Kame'enui. "Vocabulary acquistion: Instructional and curricular basics and
implications." In D. C. Simmons and E. J. Kame'enui (eds.), What Reading Research Tells Us About Children With
Diverse Learning Needs. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988, pp. 219–238.
Ellis, E. (1997). The Clarifying Routine. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises 1997.
Graves, M. and Graves, B. Scaffolding Reading Experiences: Designs for Student Success. Norwood, MA.: Christopher
Gordon 1994.
Moore, P. W. and S. A. Moore. "Possible sentences." In E. K. Dishner, T. W. Bean, J. E. Readence, and P. W. Moore
(eds.), Reading in the Content Areas: Improving Classroom Instruction, 2nd ed.,1986. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt pp.
174–179.
Nagy, W. Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association
1988.
Stahl, S. A. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books 1999.
Taba, H. Teacher's Handbook for Elementary Social Studies. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1967.
3 Nagy, W. "Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension." Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1988.
4 Graves, M. and Graves, B. Scaffolding Reading Experiences: Designs for Student Success. Norwood, MA.: Christopher Gordon
1994.
5 Stahl, op. cit.

Academic word list

 24

Group 1

sector • available • financial • process • individual • specific • principle • estimate • variables • method •

data • research • contract • environment • export • source • assessment • policy • identified • create •

derived • factors • procedure • definition • assume • theory • benefit • evidence • established •

authority • major • issues • labour • occur • economic • involved • percent • interpretation • consistent •

income • structure • legal • concept • formula • section • required • constitutional • analysis •

distribution • function • area • approach • role • legislation • indicate • response • period • context •

significant • similar •

Group 2

community • resident • range • construction • strategies • elements • previous • conclusion • security •

aspects • acquisition • features • text • commission • regulations • computer • items • consumer •

achieve • final • positive • evaluation • assistance • normal • relevant • distinction • region • traditional •

impact • consequences • chapter • equation • appropriate • resources • participation • survey •

potential • cultural • transfer • select • credit • affect • categories • perceived • sought • focus •

purchase • injury • site • journal • primary • complex • institute • investment • administration •

maintenance • design • obtained • restricted • conduct •

Group 3

comments • convention • published • framework • implies • negative • dominant • illustrated •

outcomes • constant • shift • deduction • ensure • specified • justification • funds • reliance • physical •

partnership • location • link • coordination • alternative • initial • validity • task • techniques • excluded •

consent • proportion • demonstrate • reaction • criteria • minorities • technology • philosophy •

removed • sex • compensation • sequence • corresponding • maximum • circumstances • instance •

considerable • sufficient • corporate • interaction • contribution • immigration • component • constraints

• technical • emphasis • scheme • layer • volume • document • registered • core •

 25

Group 4

overall • emerged • regime • implementation • project • hence • occupational • internal • goals •

retained • sum • integration • mechanism • parallel • imposed • despite • job • parameters •

approximate • label • concentration • principal • series • predicted • summary • attitudes • undertaken •

cycle • communication • ethnic • hypothesis • professional • status • conference • attributed • annual •

obvious • error • implications • apparent • commitment • subsequent • debate • dimensions • promote

• statistics • option • domestic • output • access • code • investigation • phase • prior • granted • stress

• civil • contrast • resolution • adequate

Group 5

alter • stability • energy • aware • licence • enforcement • draft • styles • precise • medical • pursue •

symbolic • marginal • capacity • generation • exposure • decline • academic • modified • external •

psychology • fundamental • adjustment • ratio • whereas • enable • version • perspective • contact •

network • facilitate • welfare • transition • amendment • logic • rejected • expansion • clause • prime •

target • objective • sustainable • equivalent • liberal • notion • substitution • generated • trend •

revenue • compounds • evolution • conflict • image • discretion • entities • orientation • consultation •

mental • monitoring • challenge •

Group 6

intelligence • transformation • presumption • acknowledged • utility • furthermore • accurate • diversity

• attached • recovery • assigned • tapes • motivation • bond • edition • nevertheless • transport • cited •

fees • scope • enhanced • incorporated • instructions • subsidiary • input • abstract • ministry • capable

• expert • preceding • display • incentive • inhibition • trace • ignored • incidence • estate • cooperative

• revealed • index • lecture • discrimination • overseas • explicit • aggregate • gender • underlying •

brief • domain • rational • minimum • interval • neutral • migration • flexibility • federal • author •

initiatives • allocation • exceed •

 26

Group 7

intervention • confirmed • definite • classical • chemical • voluntary • release • visible • finite •

publication • channel • file • thesis • equipment • disposal • solely • deny • identical • submitted • grade

• phenomenon • paradigm • ultimately • extract • survive • converted • transmission • global • inferred •

guarantee • advocate • dynamic • simulation • topic • insert • reverse • decades • comprise •

hierarchical • unique • comprehensive • couple • mode • differentiation • eliminate • priority • empirical

• ideology • somewhat • aid • foundation • adults • adaptation • quotation • contrary • media •

successive • innovation • prohibited • isolated •

Group 8

highlighted • eventually • inspection • termination • displacement • arbitrary • reinforced • denote •

offset • exploitation • detected • abandon • random • revision • virtually • uniform • predominantly •

thereby • implicit • tension • ambiguous • vehicle • clarity • conformity • contemporary • automatically •

accumulation • appendix • widespread • infrastructure • deviation • fluctuations • restore • guidelines •

commodity • minimises • practitioners • radical • plus • visual • chart • appreciation • prospect •

dramatic • contradiction • currency • inevitably • complement • accompany • paragraph • induced •

schedule • intensity • crucial • via • exhibit • bias • manipulation • theme • nuclear •

Group 9

bulk • behalf • unified • commenced • erosion • anticipated • minimal • ceases • vision • mutual •

norms • intermediate • manual • supplementary • incompatible • concurrent • ethical • preliminary •

integral • conversely • relaxed • confined • accommodation • temporary • distorted • passive •

subordinate • analogous • military • scenario • revolution • diminished • coherence • suspended •

mature • assurance • rigid • controversy • sphere • mediation • format • trigger • qualitative • portion •

medium • coincide • violation • device • insights • refine • devoted • team • overlap • attained •

restraints • inherent • route • protocol • founded • duration •

Group 10
 27

whereby • inclination • encountered • convinced • assembly • albeit • enormous • reluctant • posed •

persistent • undergo • notwithstanding • straightforward • panel • odd • intrinsic • compiled • adjacent •

integrity • forthcoming • conceived • ongoing • so-called • likewise • nonetheless • levy • invoked •

colleagues • depression • collapse •