Modified and Controlled Atmosphere
DH Kropf, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
RA Mancini, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
r 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Glossary
Carboxymyoglobin A form of myoglobin that results in
red color due to carbon monoxide.
Controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) A package with
an atmosphere that is intentionally controlled to remain
approximately the same during the package life.
Deoxymyoglobin A form of myoglobin responsible for
purple color due to absence of oxygen ligand.
High-oxygen packaging A gas mixture of up to 80%
oxygen and 20% carbon dioxide.
Low-oxygen packaging A gas mixture of up to 80%
nitrogen and 20% carbon dioxide.
Methemoglobin A form of hemoglobin in which the
iron is in the ferric state, not the ferrous of
normal hemoglobin, and is responsible for marrow color.
Introduction
Both modified atmosphere (MAP) and controlled atmosphere
packaging (CAP) systems have gained popularity because of
centralized preparation of retail meat cuts and distribution
over increasingly longer distances. These factors require meat
in packages to have a shelf life that is greater than that pro-
vided by overwrapping and require packaging to provide
benefits different from those offered by vacuum packaging.
Case-ready meat programs have been in wide use in Europe for
several decades but are a relatively recent part of meat retailing
in the US. Nevertheless, case ready is experiencing phenom-
enal growth in the US, accounting for nearly 65% of fresh meat
retail cases.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging
MAP involves placing product in a barrier package, removing
the existing initial atmosphere with a vacuum pump or by gas
flushing, and then refilling the package with a single gas or a
combination of gases. Although the gas composition within
the package after sealing is typically not altered, oxygen scav-
engers as well as muscle and microbial metabolism may re-
duce residual levels of oxygen in some types of MAP.
Controlled Atmosphere Packaging
CAP implies that the package atmosphere after air evacuation
is intentionally controlled to remain approximately the
same during the package life. Another term sometimes used
is ‘intelligent’ packaging, which may include monitoring the
package and possibly making adjustments based on this in-
formation. These package adjustments could deal with oxygen
Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences, Volume 3 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-384731-7.00105-7
Metmyoglobin A form of myoglobin responsible for
brown discoloration due to ferric iron.
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) A barrier package
where the initial atmosphere is removed, then the package is
refilled with a single gas or a combination of gases.
Oxymyoglobin A form of myoglobin redox responsible
for red color due to effects of oxygen ligand.
Peelable films An oxygen-permeable package
contained within an outer oxygen impermeable barrier that
is removed (peeled) at the retail market to enable
oxygenation.
scavenging or control, moisture and gas permeability, ethylene
control, temperature control, odor removal, aroma emission
from plastics, microbial growth, product freshness or spoilage,
and package integrity. To meet this very demanding require-
ment, a film that is completely impermeable to gases must
be used.
Proponents of CAP advocate the use of
1. A film with a layer of nonplastic material, such as alumi-
num;
2. Heat seals on all package perimeters; and
3. Complete evacuation of air because product color is sig-
nificantly affected by even minute amounts of oxygen in
the package. Antimicrobials and antioxidants also can be
incorporated into films to improve shelf life.
Purposes of Modified Atmosphere Packaging and
Controlled Atmosphere Packaging
Both MAP and CAP have the ability to prolong product shelf
life and thus are very useful when meat must be transported to
long distances. This technology is primarily used for the dis-
tribution of fully prepared case-ready retail packages either as
individual packages or as several retail packages in a master
or mother package. In addition, distribution of carcasses or
larger cuts to the location where retail cuts are prepared and
retail packaged is possible. For example, lamb carcasses can be
shipped in CAP and larger pork wholesale products (loins,
shoulders, or spare ribs) packaged in MAP can be shipped
to retail locations for further processing. In addition to im-
proving color life, modifying the within-package atmosphere
can influence the time before microbial growth and lipid
oxidation cause spoilage.
9
10 Packaging | Modified and Controlled Atmosphere
Color Properties
Packaging systems need to promote both the development and
the stability of an attractive, bright, fresh saleable appearance
when meat products are cut into retail cuts and placed on
display. This should provide sufficient display life by allowing
products to be sold and used by the consumer with minimal
loss. Desirable appearance relates not only to muscle color but
also to color of fat, bone marrow, and liquid purge, which all
can influence consumer purchasing decisions. As a result,
discoloration can decrease shelf life more quickly than mi-
crobial deterioration or spoilage. Packaging should also pro-
vide a barrier to water vapor transmission in order to control
surface dehydration of the meat.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Case-Ready Meat and
Central Processing
MAP systems have been essential to the development of case-
ready meat programs. The benefits of the case-ready method
include better control of sanitation and use of Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Points principles at a centralized pro-
cessing facility; improved product safety resulting from less
handling; a lower requirement for skilled labor at individual
retail stores; more consistent and high-quality products;
greater marketing flexibility (the retail manager can order
product to fit anticipated individual retail store needs); the
ability to rapidly replenish case items that are out of stock or in
short supply; and more accurate records of sales, purchasing
patterns, and inventory.
The case-ready programs that are made possible primarily
by MAP have some disadvantages and challenges, such as a
higher per-package cost because more specialized films and
packages are needed to maintain desired quality and safety for
the longer time from initial fabrication to purchase by the
customer. Although MAP can reduce food loss and waste, the
impact of packaging material waste, such as trays and film, on
the environment can be a concern. As a result, environ-
mentally friendly packaging materials that are biodegradable
have received interest. Other disadvantages to case-ready sys-
tems using MAP can include the effect of oxygen level on bone
marrow discoloration and cooked color development.
Role of Gases in Packaging
Modified Atmosphere Packaging
The initial gas atmosphere for MAP is obtained by removing
air from the package followed by refilling the package with a
desired gas blend mix such as high oxygen, low oxygen,
ultralow oxygen, and carbon monoxide at a low level (0.4%).
High-oxygen MAP involves a gas mixture of up to 80% oxygen
(65–80% is most common) and 15–30% carbon dioxide.
Complete air evacuation is not as critical for high-oxygen as for
low- and ultralow-oxygen MAP because of the final oxygen
level. Low- and ultralow-oxygen MAP uses a gas mixture of
carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The purpose of this system is to
minimize oxygen exposure during storage and distribution.
This will slow the onset of microbial spoilage and lipid
oxidation while promoting myoglobin oxygenation (bloom)
before display. Merely assuming that packages have the proper
gas composition may lead to serious consequences, even if
the deviations in composition are small. In addition, leak
detection is extremely important.
Peelable packaging includes a retail package with an inner
film that is oxygen permeable and contained within a second
outer layer of barrier film that maintains a low-oxygen con-
dition. This outer oxygen-impermeable barrier is removed
(peeled) at the retail market to enable oxygenation (bloom-
ing) of the meat to a desired bright color. Alternatively, indi-
vidual oxygen permeable retail packages can be sealed in an
individual outer ‘master’ or ‘mother’ bag that is oxygen im-
permeable. The inner package is then removed at the retail
location to facilitate product oxygenation. Minimizing both
storage time and oxymyoglobin formation before packaging
in peelable films is critical because the conversion of oxy- to
deoxymyoglobin is not direct but through metmyoglobin.
More specifically, deoxymyoglobin regeneration requires both
oxygen consumption accompanied by subsequent metmyo-
globin reduction. This reaction tends to decrease with storage
time, suggesting that oxygenation, or bloom, after peelable
films are removed at retail and the product is exposed to air
will be greater for product that has spent less time in the
oxymyoglobin redox state before initial packaging.
Oxygen
Oxygen is essential in fresh meat packaging to both develop
and maintain bright red meat color. Its use at 65–80% of in-
package gas helps to drive the oxymyoglobin pigment layer
deeper into meat. This extends the time until metmyoglobin
approaches the surface of the meat, which results in dis-
coloration. Although color life is dependent on numerous
factors, 80% oxygen:20% carbon dioxide can increase color
stability up to three times of that expected with aerobic pack-
aging. However, the primary disadvantage of the high-oxygen
packaging is lipid oxidation and the development of oxidized
off-odors. To counteract this, product enhancement with a
solution containing an antioxidant may be useful. High-oxygen
packaging can also predispose product to marrow discoloration
and cooked color defects such as premature browning.
Residual Oxygen Effects
Sufficiently low levels of oxygen are necessary for the success
of ultralow-oxygen packages because partial oxygen pressure
as low as 1.4 mmHg will favor metmyoglobin formation.
Nevertheless, low levels are difficult to achieve with initial
package evacuation of air and thus a low level of oxygen may
persist in the in-package atmosphere until it is used by muscle
or microbial metabolism or is removed with an oxygen scav-
enger. For example, simple gas displacement may result in
residual oxygen of up to 10%, whereas chamber evacuation
can achieve 0.1–1% oxygen, depending on evacuation cycle
time. As a result, residual oxygen in low- and ultralow-oxygen
packages is typically present shortly after package closure and
is often used for both muscle and microbial metabolism. This
produces carbon dioxide, which can be an asset in lessening

aerobic microbial growth and may favor a more desired
microbial population. However, at low oxygen levels, the for-
mation of metmyoglobin is favored, resulting in surface dis-
coloration. With time, oxygen may be used up by the meat and
metmyoglobin may return to purplish-red deoxymyoglobin via
metmyoglobin reducing activity (MRA). Oxygen scavengers can
also be used to minimize the amount of muscle metabolism
necessary to result in suitably low oxygen levels and MRA.
Oxygen Scavenging
To rapidly attain and then maintain zero oxygen in MAP,
oxygen absorbers or scavengers are often needed to remove
residual oxygen. The most common oxygen scavengers are
reduced iron powders mixed with acids, salts, or both that can
be oxidized in the presence of oxygen, usually on the addition
of a wetted humectant. Active packaging may use a polymeric
oxygen scavenging system that both absorbs oxygen within the
package and serves as a barrier film. The oxygen scavenging
layer consists of three components including an oxidizable
polymer that binds oxygen molecules, a photoinitiator, and a
catalyst. After the package is sealed, it passes under an ultra-
violet light, whereupon the photoinitiator provides energy to
start the reaction and the catalyst speeds up the oxygen scav-
enging. Another important consideration is immediate pack-
aging after fabrication to minimize the uptake of oxygen by
meat. Increased time before packaging will more likely result
in oxygen release into the within-package atmosphere as well
as slow metmyoglobin reduction and bloom.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a component typically used in modified at-
mosphere packaging to slow bacterial growth; thereby extending
the time until spoilage. Carbon dioxide is more effective with
low levels of initial contamination and also at cold tempera-
tures. Its effects include altered cell membrane function, nutri-
ent uptake and absorption, and enzyme functions.
Carbon dioxide is very soluble in both the muscle and fat
components of meat, especially at cold temperatures and in-
creased pH. This can diminish the volume of gas within the
package headspace, resulting in package collapse because of a
loss of gas volume. As a result, enough carbon dioxide must be
added to the gas mix to account for absorption into meat and
its consequent loss from the within-package atmosphere.
Adding nitrogen to the gas blend lessens the possibility of
package collapse.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is essentially inert in a meat package and is fre-
quently used as a filler gas to dilute oxygen. It is especially used
with cured product to provide conditions under which cured
color does not fade very rapidly and where nitrite is an in-
gredient used for microbial control.
Carbon Monoxide
The use of carbon monoxide (CO) in modified atmosphere
packaging results in a stable bright red color via the formation
Packaging | Modified and Controlled Atmosphere 11
of carboxymyoglobin. There was early concern that this stable
color would mask microbial spoilage, but at the 0.4% use
permitted in the US, this was not found to be a problem when
retail packages are removed from the master pack before dis-
play. Nevertheless, the use of expiration dates on labels has
been recommended. Although carbon monoxide can result in
cooked color defects, such as persistent pink color, consumer
apprehension toward CO is more likely the limited factor
preventing its use in modified atmosphere packaging.
Gas Effects on Bone Marrow
In addition to muscle color, packaging can influence the color
of bone marrow because hemoglobin oxidation results in
bone marrow discoloration, sometimes referred to as bone
darkening. This has been particularly problematic in high-
oxygen packages as the 80% oxygen tends to increase methe-
moglobin formation. Low-oxygen and CO packaging can
minimize marrow discoloration by maintaining hemoglobin
in a ferrous redox state.
Gas Effects on Cooked Color
Packaging atmosphere can influence cooked color in addition
to raw color. In particular, premature browning of cooked
product before pasteurization temperatures has been associ-
ated with high-oxygen packaging. Before cooking, myoglobin
redox form influences the protein's stability toward heat
induced denaturation. Oxy- and metmyoglobin are less heat
stable than deoxymyoglobin. As a result, the increased depth
of oxygen penetration in high-oxygen packaging can pre-
dispose beef to premature browning. Vacuum packaging,
which maintains deoxymyoglobin within the interior of steak/
patties, can prevent premature browning. Meat packaged in
CO will often remain red/pink after cooking because carbox-
ymyoglobin is relatively stable against heat denaturation.
Film Composition and Gas Permeability
To adequately maintain the desired gas composition during
storage, distribution, and display, packages must consist of
materials that are effective barriers to the transmission of gases
and water vapor. Gas transmission rates are affected by film
material(s) and thickness, environmental temperature, and the
difference in partial pressures of the appropriate gas between the
inside and the outside of the package. Most barrier packages
are constructed of three layers of film. The outer layer is de-
signed to be scuff and abrasion resistant; the middle layer pro-
vides barrier properties; and the inside layer is the sealant layer.
More details on film materials, how they are manufactured, and
their functions and limitations are given in another article.
Enhancement of Meat
Injection enhancement of meat includes the incorporation
of ingredients such as water, salt, phosphate, lactate, and
12 Packaging | Modified and Controlled Atmosphere
antioxidants via injection and/or physical manipulation. This
process can increase yield of saleable product, create a more
uniform tenderness, and improve color stability. Ingredient-
based effects on color can be packaging dependent. For ex-
ample, lactate tends to improve color life in high-oxygen
packaging but not in CO or vacuum. Other ingredients added
via injection enhancement can negate lipid oxidation associ-
ated with extended storage of MAP.
Key Factors for Success in Product Quality Using
Modified Atmosphere Packaging and Controlled
Atmosphere Packaging
The essential keys to success of both MAP and CAP operations
include:
• Using clean, acceptable quality product.
• Rapid completion of packaging after meat fabrication.
• Temperature control during storage and display.
• Complete evacuation of air before filling the package with
the desired atmosphere.
• Use of packaging materials with appropriate gas and
moisture transmission rates.
• Packaging that remains sealed until opened at the point of
use.
• Other considerations are package cost, package reliability,
the storage and display life provided, acceptability of the
retail package to the customer and to the meat marketing
manager, packaging speed (productivity), equipment effi-
ciency, and the required headspace gas.
See also: Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Meat:
Color and Pigment. Packaging: Equipment; Overwrapping;
Vacuum. Quality Management: Abattoirs and Processing Plants
Further Reading
Brody, A.L., 1989. Controlled/Modified Atmosphere/Vacuum Packaging of Foods.
Lancaster, PA: Technomic.
Brody, A.L., Strupinsky, E.R., Kline, L.R., 2001. Active Packaging for Food
Applications. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Church, N., 1994. Developments in modified-atmosphere packaging and related
technologies. Trends in Food Science and Technology 5, 345–352.
Eilert, S.J., 2005. New packaging technologies for the 21st century. Meat Science
71, 122–127.
Gill, C.O., 1996. Extending the storage life of raw chilled meats. Meat Science 43,
S99–S109.
Hermansen, P., 1983. Comparison of modified atmosphere versus vacuum
packaging to extend the shelf life of retail fresh meat cuts. Proceedings of the
36th Reciprocal Meat Conference, pp. 60−64. Savoy, IL: American Meat Science
Association.
Holland, G.C., 1980. Modified atmospheres for fresh meat distribution. Proceedings
of the Meat Industry Research Conference, pp. 21−39. Savoy, IL: American Meat
Science Association.
Hotchkiss, J.H., 1994. Packaging muscle foods. In: Kinsman, D.M., Kotula, A.W.,
Breidenstein, B.C. (Eds.), Muscle Foods: Meat, Poultry and Seafood Technology.
New York: Chapman and Hall, pp. 475–496.
Jeremiah, L.E., 2001. Packaging alternatives to deliver fresh meats using short- or
long-term distribution. Food Research International 34, 747–772.
Jeyamkondan, S., Jayas, D.S., Holley, R.A., 2000. Review of centralized packaging
systems for distribution of retail ready meat. Journal of Food Protection 63,
796–804.
Kropf, D.H., 1980. Effects of retail display conditions on meat color. Proceedings of
the 33rd Reciprocal Meat Conference, pp. 1−32. Savoy, IL: American Meat
Science Association.
Kropf, D.H., 2000. Meat, modified atmosphere packaging. In: Hui, Y. (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology. New York: Wiley,
pp. 1561–1566.
McMillin, K.W., 2008. Where is MAP going? A review and future potential of
modified atmosphere packaging for meat. Meat Science 80, 43–65.
Renerre, M., Labadie, J., 1993. Fresh meat packaging and meat quality. Proceedings
of the 39th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, Session 8,
pp. 361−387. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Rooney, M.L., 1995. Active Food Packaging. Glasgow: Blackie Academic and
Professional.
Singh, P., Wani, A., Saengerlaub, S., Langowski, H., 2011. Understanding critical
factors for the quality and shelf-life of MAP fresh meat. Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition 51, 146–177.
Sorheim, O., Nissen, H., Aune, T., et al., 2001. Use of carbon monoxide in retail
meat packaging. Proceedings of the 54th Reciprocal Meat Conference,
pp. 47−51. Savoy, IL: American Meat Science Association.
Taylor, A.A., 1982. Retail packaging systems for fresh meat. In: Lincoln, N.E. (Ed.),
Proceedings of the International Symposium of Meat Science and Technology,
pp. 353−365. Savoy, IL: American Meat Science Association.
Zhao, Y., Wells, J.H., McMillen, K.W., 1994. Application of dynamic modified
atmosphere packaging systems for fresh red meats: Review. Journal of Muscle
Foods 5, 299–328.
Zhou, G.H., Xu, X.L., Liu, Y., 2010. Preservation technologies for fresh meat. Meat
Science 86, 119–128.
Relevant Websites
http://modifiedatmospherepackaging.com/
Dan Sensor.
http://www.modifiedatmospherepackaging.com/Applications/Modified-atmosphere-
packaging-fresh-meat.aspx
Dan Sensor.
http://www.foodsmart.govt.nz/food-safety/high-risk-foods/modified-atmosphere-foods/
New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled_atmosphere
Wikipedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_atmosphere
Wikipedia.