Sampling explained.

rashavani147@gmail.com
Sampling ?

In general, sampling refers to the process of selecting a representative subset from a larger
population or dataset. Sampling is used in a variety of fields, including statistics, data analysis,
market research, and more.

In statistics, sampling involves selecting a subset of individuals or observations from a larger

population in order to draw inferences or make predictions about the population as a whole. The
goal is to obtain a sample that is representative of the population in terms of relevant
characteristics.

Sampling methods can be categorized into two broad categories: probability sampling and
non-probability sampling. Probability sampling involves selecting individuals or observations
from the population at random, while non-probability sampling methods do not involve random
selection.

Some common sampling methods include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster
sampling, convenience sampling, and snowball sampling. The choice of sampling method will
depend on the research question, the size and nature of the population, and other relevant
factors.

rashavani147@gmail.com
Sampling method - probability and non probability ?

Sampling methods can be broadly classified into two categories: probability sampling and
non-probability sampling.

Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling involves selecting individuals or observations from the population at
random, such that every member of the population has a known, non-zero probability of being
selected. This means that every individual or observation in the population has an equal chance
of being selected. Probability sampling methods are considered to be more objective and
reliable than non-probability sampling methods, as they are based on random selection.

Some examples of probability sampling methods include:

Simple random sampling: where individuals or observations are randomly selected from the
population without any specific criteria or restrictions.
Stratified random sampling: where the population is divided into subgroups (or strata) based on
certain characteristics, and individuals or observations are randomly selected from each
stratum.
Cluster sampling: where the population is divided into clusters, and a random sample of clusters
is selected, and then all individuals or observations within the selected clusters are included in
the sample.
Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling methods do not involve random selection, and therefore, the
probability of any individual or observation being selected is unknown. Non-probability sampling
methods are often used when it is difficult or impossible to obtain a random sample from the
population. They are considered to be less reliable than probability sampling methods, as they
may introduce bias into the sample.

Some examples of non-probability sampling methods include:

Convenience sampling: where individuals or observations are selected based on their

availability or accessibility, such as using students in a classroom as a sample.
Quota sampling: where the researcher selects a certain number of individuals or observations
from different subgroups of the population based on certain characteristics, such as gender,
age, or occupation.
Snowball sampling: where individuals or observations are selected based on referrals from
other individuals or observations already in the sample.

rashavani147@gmail.com
Analysis of data- Tabulation, coding, graphical representation of data?

Analysis of data involves various steps, including tabulation, coding, and graphical
representation of data. Here's a brief explanation of each step:

Tabulation: Tabulation involves organizing data in a table format. It is a method of summarizing

and presenting data in a structured way that makes it easier to understand and interpret. In
tabulation, data is arranged in rows and columns, and various summary statistics such as totals,
percentages, and averages can be calculated.

Coding: Coding involves assigning numerical codes to the responses or variables in a dataset.
This is often done to make the data more manageable and easier to analyze. For example, if a
survey question asks respondents to indicate their gender, the responses may be coded as 1 for
male and 2 for female.
Graphical representation of data: Graphical representation involves creating visual displays of
data to help understand patterns and relationships in the data. Some common types of graphs
include bar graphs, line graphs, scatterplots, and pie charts. Graphs can be used to identify
trends, compare groups, and summarize key findings in a visually appealing and informative
way.

These techniques are often used in combination to analyze data. For example, data may be
tabulated and summarized in tables, and then presented graphically to provide a visual
representation of the data. The choice of analysis techniques will depend on the nature of the
data, the research question, and the objectives of the study.

rashavani147@gmail.com
Statistical tools, testing of hypothesis, mean, median, mode explain each in details?

Statistical tools are methods and techniques used to analyze and interpret data. Two common
statistical tools are hypothesis testing and descriptive statistics, including measures of central
tendency such as the mean, median, and mode.

Hypothesis Testing:
Hypothesis testing is a statistical tool used to make inferences about a population based on a
sample of data. It involves testing a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis to
determine if there is enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is a
statement that there is no difference or relationship between two variables, while the alternative
hypothesis is a statement that there is a difference or relationship. Hypothesis testing involves
calculating a test statistic and comparing it to a critical value or p-value to determine if the null
hypothesis should be rejected or not.

Measures of Central Tendency:

Measures of central tendency are statistical tools used to describe the typical or central value of
a dataset. Three common measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.

Mean: The mean is the sum of all values in a dataset divided by the number of observations. It
is commonly used to describe the average value of a dataset. For example, if a dataset contains
the numbers 3, 5, 7, and 9, the mean would be (3+5+7+9)/4 = 6.

Median: The median is the middle value in a dataset when the observations are ordered from
smallest to largest. It is less sensitive to extreme values than the mean and is often used when
the dataset is skewed or has outliers. For example, if a dataset contains the numbers 3, 5, 7, 9,
and 11, the median would be 7.
Mode: The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a dataset. It is commonly used to
describe the most common value or category in a dataset. For example, if a dataset contains
the numbers 3, 5, 7, 7, and 9, the mode would be 7.

These measures of central tendency can be used to summarize and describe the characteristics
of a dataset, but it is important to also consider other measures of variability and distribution to
fully understand the data.

rashavani147@gmail.com
Measures of standard deviation and variances?

Standard deviation and variance are two commonly used measures of variability in a dataset.

Variance:
Variance is a measure of how spread out the data is from the mean. It is calculated by taking the
sum of the squared differences between each data point and the mean, and then dividing by the
number of observations minus one. The formula for variance is:

Variance = sum of (X - mean)^2 / (n - 1)

where X is the data point, mean is the average of the dataset, and n is the number of
observations.

Variance is expressed in the same units as the original data and is useful for comparing the
variability of different datasets.

Standard Deviation:
Standard deviation is a measure of how spread out the data is from the mean, similar to
variance. It is the square root of the variance and is expressed in the same units as the original
data. The formula for standard deviation is:

Standard deviation = square root of variance

Standard deviation is a more commonly used measure of variability than variance, as it is easier
to interpret and is on the same scale as the original data.

Standard deviation can also be used to describe the shape of the data distribution. If the
standard deviation is small, the data points are closely clustered around the mean and the
distribution is narrow. If the standard deviation is large, the data points are spread out from the
mean and the distribution is wide.
Both variance and standard deviation are important tools for analyzing and understanding the
variability of a dataset. However, it is important to consider other measures of variability and
distribution, such as skewness and kurtosis, to fully understand the characteristics of the data.

Send a message…