2 Introduction teo marine biology and oceanography

8 Chemical and physical characteristics of seawater (light, temperature, pH, salinity, oxygen, chemical composition, tides and currents)
8 Characteristics and adaptations of marine organisms: algae and plants, invertebrates and vertebrates
8 Characteristics, classification and distribution of plankton, benthos and nekton
Main marine ecosystems: rocky intertidal and subtidal, beaches, transitional environments, bioconstructions, pelagic environment, deep
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sea

Pag:

1-19 incluido- CARACTERISTICAS E INTRODUCCION

20-49-PLANCTON

50-57-ADAPTATIONS

58 en adelante el resto-marine ecosystemsTo

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INTRO TO MARINE BIOLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY

Marine biology studies : organisms living in the sea

-we know very little about the depths difficulty to explore

Difference between seas and oceans:

- Seas are seas areas enclosed by lands and shallower(menos profundo) than oceans-
- with different characteristics between them

Variables that distinguish marine environments:

- Depth
- Salinity
- Hydrodynamics

Why study marine biology in the oceans?:natural and anthropic point of view
- Produce O2
- Regulate planets climate-absorb heat and co2
- Protecting coastline
- Provides natural resources
- Home to many organisms of food and conservative interest
- Source of energy-kinetic energy
- Support tourism and recreational activities

AIM OF MARINE BIOLOGY:

- Sustainability lifestyle ensuring that anthropic actions foes not affect negatively the marine ecosystems
to ensure future generations
- Improving our knowledge
- Rehabilitation of environments already degraded by man and protection
- Knowing about the past
- Predicting future scenarios

OCEANOGRAPHY:
Have many branches:
- Physics tides and waves
- Geology
- Biology
- Chemistry chemical compositions

1. It was thought : there was NO LIFE UNDER 500M DEPTH

2. Recent decades progression on new discoveries but still don’t know completely

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HISTORY OF MARINE BIOLOGY: 1000 B.C
o 1ST Marine biologist in Western culture Aristotle
- catalogue of mairne organisms
- understood that cetaceans are mamals

o Scientists Pliny the Elder

- Studies phases of the moon

o Benjamin Franklin
- Studies the Gulf Stream

o James Cook-one of the great explorers 1800

- Began modern study of marine biology

o Darwin
-primordial nets for samplins and study plankton
-theory of evolution

o Forbes 19th century

-analysed relationship between organsims and nvironments
-AZOIC THEORY:NO LIFE UNDER 500M

o Thmpson 1900
-studies currents,ocean temperature…

o 19th century- Hense

-term plankton

o Hackel
-term benthos and nekton

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 Chemical and physical characteristics of seawater (light, temperature, pH, salinity,
oxygen, chemical composition, tides and currents)

Abiotic factors that most affects living organisms in sea water:

- Salinity(salts)
- Chemical components(dissolved salts and gases)
- pH
- Temperature
- Light
- pressure

SALINITY
Average value= 35g/L

Origin of salt:
-Traced back to VOLCANIC ACTIVITY on land and underwater
rocks are the major salt dissolved in seawater
reaches the sea by watercourses and rainfall

Marine Salts: Balance between output and input rates of element:

Sodium chloride RESIDENCE RATE
Chlorine 55% Amount of grams of element/rate of arrival or removal
Sodium 33%

SALINITY FUNCTIONS:
- gives higher density to water
- implications for organisms life(adaptation to hyper-tonic environment)
- lowering freezing point(-1.8)

SALINITY AND CHEMICAL COMPONENTS

Conservative component: always present in the sea (+1mg conc in water)

Nutrients inorganic component ecological role

basis of primary production processes algae and plants
-N, P,S and Silicon

02 and anhydride important for life of heterotrphic andautrophic organisms

MEASURE SALINITY:
1.law to calculate that implies that by knowing only the concentration of one conservative element, we can
derive the total salinity.
2.Conductimetre(PSU): throught the electrical conductivity of water

Salt concentration conductivity increases

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SALINITY VARIABLES:

Process that DECREASES marine salinity:

- precipitation
- melting ice

Process that INCREASES marine salinity:

- ice formation
- evaporation

SALINITY IS HIGHER: warmer areas of the planet

- Tropical areas
- Summer

SALINITY IS LOWER: going towards the pole/winter

Mediterranean Sea= High salinity :

- Few rivers flow
- High temperatures

The Dead Sea= The saltiest of the world

TRANSITION ZONE= where a sudden change occurs

Salinity values stabilize in deep zones

NUTRIENTS
Nutrients inorganic component ecological role
basis of primary production processes algae and plants
-N, P,S and Silicon

- Can be limiting factors for primary production

Nutrient conc. = Depth increases

Because:
- Lower use of Nutrients at the bottom primary production processes takes place in the first few
meters(requires light)
- Sedimentation process
- Recycling of organic matter by decomposers at the bottom sea

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GASES
LINKED TO DIFFERENT METABOLIC PROCESSES

O2 = depth (menor profundidad)

Because: O2 is produced by photosynthesis at surface

CO2 = Depth (mayor profundidad):

Produced by respiration and decomposition

CO2:
- Very soluble in water
- Tends to be absorbed by the ocean(30%)
- Related to pH

Due to anthropogenic activities:

- pH is decreasing -acidifying the oceans

Average pH=8,1
By the end of century pH=7,7 due to:
- of CO2= acidity

CO2 +WATER=CARBONIC ACID release H+ ions

This leads to destruction of carbonate structures of marine species and endanger them
Ex: snail shells and coral reefs

TEMPERATURE
- Influences the metabolism of species
T almost
Depends on LATITUDE uniform
-
homogenised
Solar influence

Gente thermocline

THERMOCLINES: the areas where temperature changes quickly

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LOW LATITUDE:
- Temperature high all year
- Warm surfaces
- Stable thermocline
- Deep temperature

HIGH LATITUDE:
- SEASONALITY IS RELEVANT
- Thermocline only appear in summer
- In winter:surface and deep water can mix DOWNWELLING PROCESS

Seas and oceans can regulate coastal climate:

- Water has high thermal capacity
- ability to absorb heat during the
summer and release it during the
winter, making these areas mild.

VISCOSITY

Density = viscosity making movement more difficult

Salinity = -forcing organisms to expend more energy

Temperature = Viscosity decreases

COLD SALTY WATER= MOST VISCOUS = MAKE FLOATING EASIER

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DENSITY
Density determines
the formation of certain currents, called density or gradient currents.

Sea water has a density that varies from 1.024 to 1.03 g/cm3 due to variable dissolved salts. Salt water
is denser than fresh water, which influences certain processes.

Temperature and salinity affect density.

- Colder and saltier waters will be denser, warmer and slightly salty waters will
be lighter.
- Density is a parameter that changes seasonally where salinity and
temperature will also change seasonally.

Here too there can be bathymetric variation, and transition zones known as
pycnocline can form, zones that separate masses of different density.
These zonesare not necessarily stable but can vary.
- The pycnocline becomes more stable in summer when at the surface higher t =
less dense water, and at depth lower t = denser water. Consequently, the
pycnocline has an inverse trend to the temperature.

Salinity also influences density, but since it has a smaller range of variation than
temperature, it has less influence on temperature.
Salinity becomes crucial in areas with equal t water masses.
- For the same salinity, density decreases with increasing temperature.
- At the same temperature, density increases with increasing salinity.

The surface and deep layers, due to the different density, do not interact much,
and therefore have a low exchange of material and thus nutrients, which affects
the metabolism of marine organisms.

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LIGHT
Light is a resource for primary producers, and it is also a condition that influences bio-rhythms, the
rhythms of organisms are influenced by day-night alternation. Only part of the sun's radiation reaches
the earth's surface; this small portion is the basis for photosynthetic production both on land and in the
sea. Light changes considerably as depth increases.

Electromagnetic radiation moves more slowly in the aqueous medium, and light propagation is
dominated by :
- diffusion (scattering), i.e. the change in the direction of photons without loss of energy due to
salts and suspended particles;
- absorption, transformation of solar energy into various types of energy.
Light radiation varies with depth both
qualitatively and quantitatively.
50% of the light is lost after the first
metre of depth, from 100 to 150 m there
is 1% light, after a few hundred metres
there is complete darkness.
Some wavelengths are extinguished
earlier than others. Red and orange
wavelengths die out at the surface,
yellow and green go deep, and blue goes
deepest of all.
Finally, more turbid waters contain
suspended particles that can absorb and
differise light. Marine areas influenced by
watercourses or near the coast are
generally more turbid and therefore
darker. In very transparent waters, light
can reach deeper into the sea. Open sea
areas tend to be more transparent and
therefore brighter.
Satellite technology exploits the
characteristics of different wavelengths,
which are absorbed or diffused in various
ways, especially by various organisms
such as phytoplankton that absorb red
and blue radiation and reflect green, to
obtain information on the abundance of
phytoplankton based on how much light
radiation is lost.

3Bathymetric zones can be identified according to the amount and

quality of light present:
- Euphotic zone : from the surface to the depth where 1% arrives
of incident radiation, sufficient light for photosynthesis and
positive photosynthetic rate (photosynthesis>respiration). The
more turbid the water, the more shallow and stylish this zone
will be.
- Dysphotic zone: located below the Euphotic zone, and here the
photosynthetic processes have a negative balance due to low
light (photosynthesis<respiration).
- Aphotic zone: there is no light and therefore no possibility of occurrence
photosynthetic processes. The only light can come from
bioluminescence.

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 Within the Euphotic zone, the photosynthetic activity of
various species is different because of their different
adaptations to different light conditions. Organisms
will have different optimum light intensities, and will
develop and proliferate under different conditions.
Cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates are adapted to
areas of low light intensity, diatoms are adapted to
various light conditions, while green algae grow more
as light increases in general.

PRESSURE

Sea pressure increases with depth, and increases by one atmosphere every metre10. There is therefore a
line relationship between depth and pressure; at metres3000 there will be atmospheres300. Deep-sea
organisms have to adapt to very high pressure conditions. In general, pressure influences organisms a
great deal.

DISSOLVED AND PARTICULATE ORGANIC SUBSTANCES

In addition to salts, water may contain other compounds such as Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM), with
dimensions of less than 0.5 microns, and Particulate Organic Matter (POM), with dimensions between 1
and200 1 microns.0,5

The major fraction of DOM is similar to humus (polymers with a polycyclic structure), then to other
biochemical classes. The origin of DOM can be attributed to :
- Riverine inputs, runoff and anthropogenic discharges
- Dissolving organisms
- Excretion of extracellular products from algae or nitrogen compounds from zooplankton or organisms
superior.
POMs, on the other hand, originate in :
- Marine organisms
- Detritus (remains of organisms)

MARINE AEROSOL

Seawater is capable of affecting the atmosphere, not only by releasing heat but also particles, in the
form of marine aerosols.

When gas bubbles reach the surface

they open up and release particles
into the atmosphere. Aerosols
therefore abound when the sea is
rough. Aerosols can reach continental
areas through strong winds, bringing
substances or certain elements such
as iodine onto land. However, it can
also carry toxic substances into the
atmosphere. In fact, there have been
cases of toxic substances from
microalgae such as Ostreopsis Ovata
arriving on the Sicilian coast,
poisoning some bathers. These algae
grow on the seabed or macroalgae.

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 Some substances such as DMS, dimethyl sulphide, produced by
phytoplankton, green and red algae, can reach the atmosphere
via aerosols. In the atmosphere, DMSs oxidise to sulphate,
becoming centres of aggregation for water and increasing the
presence of clouds. The latter by increasing their light
reflection surface (albedo) raffed the atmospheric
temperature. And by decreasing the amount of light reaching
the surface. This creates a negative feedback system, since as
the light decreases, the photosynthetic activity of the MSD
products themselves decreases, producing less of them,
limiting the cloud formation cycle.

HOW TO MEASURE THE MAIN VARIABLES OF SEAWATER

In recent years, various types of probes have been developed which are capable of measuring various
types of parameters thanks to the presence of various sensors.
The probes have a sensor body, the most delicate part of which is often protected by metal frames to
prevent damage to the sensors. The body is connected via a cable to a data-logger, a computer that
stores the data. The length of the cable varies according to the depth of the site to be analysed.

Some of the most commonly measured variables

are depth, temperature, salinity, conductivity, pH,
dissolved oxygen. Some sensors can measure
chlorophyll, and thus indirectly estimate primary
production. Other sensors can measure light, while
some experimental sensors can measure the
presence of contaminants.

Simpler tools are bucket discs, a metal circle painted white. The disc is lowered slowly and the observer
assesses when it disappears - the further to the surface it disappears, the more turbid the water will be.
The cable used for the dive has glass notches to determine the depth to which the disc descends. The photic
zone is estimated as two and a half times the depth at which the dry disc disappears.

Other chemical variables have to be calculated in the laboratory, and it is

therefore necessary to take seawater (always accompanied by analysis of chemical
and physical parameters using probes). The most commonly used way is to use
plastic bottles called Niskin bottles. These are plastic cylinders with two caps
which are kept open by a system of metric ropes. The bottle is lowered with the
caps open. When the desired depth is reached, the caps are closed with the lines
and weights called messenger weights that slide on top, closing the caps. In this
way you will get water of that particular depth.

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 SEAWATER
FILTRATION OF WATER SAMPLES

For some laboratory analyses it is often necessary to filter the samples. By using devices with buckets
and vacuum pumps, certain elements such as nutrients or other dissolved components can be isolated.
These components can then be analysed separately from the water. Some filters can also filter out
particulate material from the liquid.

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE SEA-CURRENTS

Sea movements can be divided into
- currents,
- waves
- tides.
The driving force behind these movements are atmospheric forces such as wind, solar energy, and lunar
and solar attraction. These movements have a strong impact on biological processes, influencing the
availability of nutrients, affecting climate, and distributing energy around the planet.

- Large sea currents should be considered as constant movements,

- waves depend on weather conditions and are therefore variable.
- Tides are periodic movements, with predictable timing.

CURRENTS

The atmosphere determines ocean currents, and the ocean provides the energy for moving large air
masses, influencing the atmosphere and climate.

Currents are masses of ocean water that move from one place to another unrelated to the tide (tidal
currents) or wave motion. Some currents are temporary and affect small spaces (such as bays and gulfs),
while others are constant and affect large areas of the ocean.

The currents are due to :

- Wind and differences in atmospheric pressure. Wind gives rise to drift currents (inertial currents
after the wind ceases until the residual motion is exhausted).
- Changes in temperature and/or salinity (changes in evaporation and freshwater input). Changes in
temperature and salinity in turn cause changes in density, and give rise to gradient currents.

When analysing currents, we can distinguish between two forces: the generating ones, which initiate
the process of setting the water in motion, and the modifying ones, which modify the moving water.
- Among the generators are: atmospheric conditions such as wind and pressure (external forces which
influence the surface layer), or differences in water density (internal forces). The density distribution
within the water mass generates currents mainly at high latitudes and at depth. The action of wind and
atmospheric passion generates currents mainly at low and medium latitudes and at the surface.
- Among the modifiers are: the Coriolis force, and the friction of water movement. The forces
Modifying factors only arise when the flow is already underway and influence it to a greater or lesser
extent depending on the speed of the movement and the latitude. Among the factors that modify the
flow of any ocean current is also the morphology of the ocean basins themselves, which can hinder it.

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Among the modifying forces is the effect of Coriolis, due to the rotational
movement of the Earth around its axis. This causes a change in the
direction of movement of water masses, with a rightward deviation in
the northern hemisphere and a leftward deviation in the southern one.
The key is earth surface rotates faster at the equator that at the
poles
The effect is inversely proportional to the speed of the particles, and
increases as we move towards the poles.

Over long distances (such as when flying planes or ships), it is

important to take the Coriolis deflection force into account if you want
to reach your destination correctly.

DRIFT CURRENTS

The first external factor that generates currents is the wind, which, moving from areas of high to low
pressure, moves the surface sea with it. The underlying sea layers are also affected up to a certain
depth, propagating the surface movement downwards as well. Once the movement is underway,
however, the Coriolis force will deviate the current by 45 degrees with respect to the wind. The surface
of the sea takes on a different direction to that of the wind, while the layers below, which will be set in
motion by friction with the surface, will move more slowly and their direction will in turn be deflected
by Coriolis. Going down in depth the speed will be even slower and the direction even more deviated,
until we reach a certain depth where the movement is null.
It is estimated that considering the first 100 metres of depth, the total direction of the water mass is 90
degrees (right or left depending on the hemisphere) relative to the direction of the wind.
A ship pushed by the current will move slightly out of the wind, while going down in depth the overall
movement of the water mass (its individual layers will form an Ekman Spiral) will be perpendicular to the
wind. These currents are the drift currents.

GRADIENT CURRENTS

These are typically vertical currents typical of cold areas and large stretches of sea, where two masses
of different density (and therefore temperature and/or pressure) come into contact.
The less dense water mass will be higher than the
denser one. When they come into contact, the higher
column will gravitationally slide over the denser water
mass. A movement is set in motion that is responsible
for mixing processes that are fundamental for biological
processes.

The greater the difference of density, the greater the

velocity of the current. In addition to the force of
gravity, the effect of Coriolis is added and the
resulting motion is called a geostrophic current.

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THE GULF STREAM (AND THE KUROSHIO CURRENT) IS A GRADIENT D CURRENT

The Gulf Stream originates in

Mexico, a warm area with water
masses at higher temperatures and
therefore less dense, while on the
other side (the polar side) there are
colder and therefore denser waters.
A current then forms from the mid-
Atlantic towards the European
coasts.
There are other gradient currents
such as the Kurishio current along
the Chinese coast.

The Adriatic, a shallow basin, is also affected by the influence of the

Po, which brings fresh water to the upper Adriatic, creating a salinity
gradient and thus density in the basin. The current moves from north
to south on the Italian coast, and from south to north on the Croatian
coast.

GLOBAL SURFACE CIRCULATION

There are atmospheric circulation patterns at different

attitudinal belts of the planet. In the equatorial zone, the
hottest area, there will be strong updrafts in the
atmosphere, generating low pressure on the ground. This
results in the arrival of high-pressure air masses from high
latitudes. Low-altitude winds are deflected by Coriolis,
and therefore (in the northern hemisphere) blow from the
northeast to the southwest, and are the Trade Winds.
These fixed winds also influence water masses. Moving to
mid-latitudes there will be low-altitude winds blowing
from southwest to northeast.
GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

The trade winds and other winds form 5 fixed currents that determine water masses and thus heat, 2
turns in the Atlantic, 2 in the Pacific and one in the Indian. As they go towards the poles, the warm
currents raff cool, and turn back towards the equator warming up.
Europe is influenced by the northern Atlantic gyre, of which the Gulf Stream is a part. The continents play an
important role in the formation of the gyres, as it is the continents themselves that force the currents to
deviate.

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 GLOBAL SURFACE OCEAN CIRCULATION

DEEP CIRCULATION

The oceans are on average a few kilometres deep, so deep currents are formed which take into account
the stratigraphy of the seabed. The ocean floor is not flat, but has depressions, plains, ridges and so on.
Generally, there are no strong movements as on the surface, but slow movements. Deep circulation is
consequential to surface circulation because it results from downwelling. When water masses of
different densities sink, they create deep currents. Denser waters reach great depths and flow following
the morphology of the seabed.

The result of these currents is explained

by the conveyor belt theory: hot
surface masses move towards the poles
where they sink because they become
cold and salty and return towards the
equator where they rise and begin the
process again.
The gulf stream, for example, as it
moves northwards, forms cold water
masses that then sink and begin to
move southwards, creating the deep
currents. This happens in every turn of
the oceans.

Global warming makes the formation

of dense waters more difficult, and more
melting ice makes waters even less
dense, slowing the formation of deep
currents.

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UPWELLING AND DOWNWELLING

Upwelling of cold water masses, which occurs in coastal areas with winds that sweep coastal waters out
to sea. This creates a deficit at the surface that draws deeper waters back to the surface. These
currents transport nutrients (present in large quantities at depth) such as nitrates and phosphates to the
surface and stimulate primary production. In these areas there will be a high rate of primary production,
and therefore plankton growth that stimulates the formation of large trophic nets, which are very
important economically for fishing.

The wind must blow parallel to the coast to push the water perpendicularly. In addition, depending on
its direction, it can form both areas of divergence with upwelling and areas of convergence with
downwelling.

EL NINO AND LA NINA

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SEA MOVEMENTS

CIRCULATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA

The circulation of the Mediterranean Sea is composed of the following components :
- Zonal circulation: formed by the entry of Atlantic surface waters from the Strait of Gibraltar.
As it moves eastwards, it changes its thermohaline characteristics because it gets warmer and salinity
increases. In the eastern basin
intermediate or Levantine waters form,
which then return westward moving into
the depths. The strait is characterised by
shallow waters, with Atlantic waters
flowing deep into the strait and
Mediterranean waters, which are saltier
and deeper, flowing down.

- Southern Circulation: guided by

processes of deep water formations
occurring in the Aegean Sea, the Gulf of
Lion, and the lower Adriatic.
- This pattern is typical of a
tourmaline circulation that can be
described as roughly constant.

The deep waters of the Mediterranean form in winter with temperatures as low as 20°C, which
facilitates downwelling processes by initiating deep circulation.
Underwater structures such as canyons facilitate deep flows by channelling cold flows to deeper areas.
Canyons also channel materials such as plastics, contaminants but also nutrients and debris from the
land.

The Mediterranean underwent important processes such as the Messinian Crisis, which led to the drying
out of the Mediterranean due to the closure of the Strait of Gibraltar. A number of sedimentary deposits
formed during this period, including those of rock salt.
The Mediterranean was in fact transformed
into an enormous hyper-saline basin. The
sedimentary products of this impressive
event are more than a million cubic
kilometres of evaporitic rocks, including rock
salt, gypsum, anhydrite and carbonate, which
were deposited both on the deep seabed of
the Mediterranean and on its margins.

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MEASUREMENTS OF CURRENTS

The physical characteristics of currents can be

estimated indirectly by means of the density
distribution of water masses.
or the variation of the electric potential in the sea
associated with the movement of water in the
earth's magnetic field.
There are also direct methods such as :
- Eulerian method: the velocity and direction of the
flow at a point are measured as a function of
depth and time with instruments called
current meters that are lowered from boats
or installed on buoys with anchoring systems
or other fixed structures.
- Lagrangian method: speed and direction
of flow at a point are measured with floating
objects launched into the sea and whose
position is periodically recorded by
reconstructing the path of the current.
- Acoustic method: measuring the speed of the
propagation of sound in water to calculate
the speed of a current.
- Simpler instruments used in coastal areas
are current meters with propellers that align
with the current and the movement of the
propeller will be a function of the speed of
the current.

WAVES

Any disturbance generates waves that propagate in well-defined ways. A wave transfers the disturbance
from one part of the water body to another. While currents cause displacement of water masses, in
waves there is no displacement of matter, only of energy.
We can distinguish certain characteristics and parameters of waves:
- The highest part of a wave is called the crest, while the lowest part is the belly or hollow.
- The height of wave A is the vertical distance between crest and belly.
- Period (T) : time required for the passage of two successive crests or two bellies.
- Wave length (lambda): distance between two successive crests or bellies .
- Velocity: equal to the wavelength divided by the period of the wave.
- Fetch : Extent (area) of open sea over which the wind blows with constant direction and intensity.
The motion of the water as the wave passes takes on a circular pattern and its diameter is equal to the
height of the wave itself. Moving away from the surface, the orbital motion progressively decreases until
the depth of lambda/2 where it becomes negligible because the bottom interacts with the motion of the
water particles and friction crushes the ellipse of the orbital motion.
When the depth is less than lambda means, the wavelength decreases, the height increases, the crest
tilts and, exceeding a threshold value, breaks.

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WAVE GENERATORS

Wind is the main generator of waves, but other generators can be earthquakes at sea or landslides. Two
particular types of waves are :

- Tsunamis: these are waves caused by earthquakes, which are characterised by wavelengths of even
more than 250 km, periods of 10-20 minutes, of low height but which, thanks to their high wavelength,
can create enormous impacts once they reach the coasts. An enormous volume of water that causes
the sea level to rise to that height and maintains it for some time.
- Anomalous waves: formed by underwater landslides, after storms, after the passage of a ferry,
of rushing winds that soffier over the sea at high latitudes, of a glacier pouring into the sea. They are
characterised by great height but short length (once the wave has passed it leaves empty space
behind).

ADVANCE OF A TSUNAMITSUNAMI AND TIDAL WAVE IN COMPARISON

WAVE MEASUREMENT

They are measured with wave meters, and more recently with radar altimeters mounted on satellites.
Today, wave buoys also measure weather, wave and current parameters.
As an alternative to traditional methods, it is now possible to use the altimetric data collected from the
orbital passages over the Mediterranean of the recent generation of NASA or ESA circumpolar satellites
which, thanks to the radiometers and other sensors included in their sophisticated instrumentation, can
provide a measurement of wave heights that is generally adequate for normal oceanographic and
meteorological needs. However, such satellite information could be expensive and not easily processed.

MAREE

Tides can be defined as a set of vertical movements (sea level changes) and horizontal movements (tidal
currents) due to long-period waves generated by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun (variable)
and the centrifugal effect of the rotating Earth-Moon system (same magnitude and direction at all points
on the Earth). Tides are important for the distribution of organisms

The Moon is much smaller than the Sun but has a much smaller distance from
the Earth, and is the main factor determining the period and height of the
tides (the Sun contributes 50% of the Moon's influence to the height). Strong
winds can cause higher than normal tides.
The Moon's gravitational force varies from one side of the planet to the other,
due to the small Earth-Moon distance:
- A bulge forms in the face close to the Moon;
- On the opposite face there is a similar swelling due to the force
centrifugal generated by the rotation of the Earth and Moon around a centre
of mass common to the centre of the Earth but slightly displaced (as if
forming a long wave with a crest at high tide and a hollow at low tide).

19
Tides are variable, depending on
the position of the sun and moon.
When they are aligned their
gravitational forces add up and the
tide is maximum. The same thing
happens when they are aligned but
with the earth in between, in this
case however attracting from
opposite sides. When the sun and
moon are perpendicular to each
other, the tides will be minimum,
because they will attract water in
directions perpendicular to each
other, damping the tides. The
maximum tides are called
equinoctial or spring tides, the
minimum tides are called
quadrature or solstitial tides.

The periodicity of the tides is not 24 hours, because as the

earth turns, the moon revolves around the earth. There is a
time lag of minutes.50

As the Earth rotates on its axis, each point on the surface (as
indicated by the flag) passes through bulges (high tide) and
intermediate points (low tide). Since in the meantime the
Moon is also rotating around the Earth, a full march cycle
requires more minutes50 than the 24 hours it takes for the Earth
to make a complete rotation.

The tides do not present the same characteristics in all the coasts of the world, as they are greatly
influenced by the presence of continents and islands and the conformation of the ocean floor. Depending
on the daily cadence and the intensity of the variation at sea level, we can distinguish three types of tides:
- Semi-diurnal tides, in which two high and two low tides occur per day with similar heights. This is the
type of
world's most common tide, which specifically occurs on the American east coast, in Europe and in
Africa.
- Mixed semi-diurnal tides, in which two high and two low tides occur per day, but with different
height. They are typical of the American west coast, many parts of the Pacific and Indian oceans.
- Diurnal tides, in which there is one high and one low tide per day. This type of tide is typical
ofcoasts of Antarctica, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean and the Pacific.

20
Characteristics, classification and distribution of plankton, benthos and nekton

THE PLANKTON

Plankton is a very heterogeneous group of organisms, and is, together with necton and benthos, one of
the 3 biotic components of the sea. They are organisms that are unable to overcome the force of the
currents and are transported by them.
- The necton consists of organisms adapted to swimming, while in
- the benthos we find many organisms fixed to the substrate but also bottom organisms capable of
movement.

The name plankton was proposed by Hensen in and 1889,means "wandering".

They are a mixture of animal and plant organisms of the water column and although they make their own
movements, they are not able to counteract the currents. They are both surface and deep water column
organisms. In addition to plankton, there are non-living particles in suspension in the water column,
called triptons; the combination of triptons and plankton is called seston.

The zones into which marine environments are categorised are divided into the Pelagic Domain (the
water column) and the Benthic Domain (the seabed). Then, according to depth, the two domains are
divided into related zones:
- From a depth of a few 0metres200 there is the Epipelagic zone, while on the seabed there is the Platform
Continental. This area is inhabited by organisms known as epipelagics.
- The Mesopelagic zone is present from the 200metres1.000 upwards, while on the seabed there is the
Batiale zone or
Continental Escarpment. This area is inhabited by mesopelagic organisms.
- From the 1.000meters2.000 onwards, the bathypelagic zone is present, while on the seabed the zone is
again present.
Batiale, although here it is also called the Batiale Plain. Batial organisms live here.
- The Abyssopelagic zone is present from the 2.000metres6.000, the Abyssal zone is on the bottom. Here
live
abyssal organisms.
- Finally, beyond the metres6.000 of depth there is the Abyssopelagic zone, on the seabed there is the
Adale zone.

21
PLANKTON ADAPTATIONS
Planktonic organisms have adaptations to stay afloat and counter gravity.
- They have body structures that are denser than water.
- Their adaptations are morphological, i.e. in terms of shape, but also physiological, i.e. related to the
replacement of certain components.
- Other adaptations relate tocolonies.
- Also having lots of water
within one's own body helps to balance its density with that of the sea
water itself.

- Shape adaptations: flat body shapes are diffuse. The ctenophore Cestus
Veneris, has a very long, ribbon-like body that undulates in the water column.

- Other organisms such as the larvae of the lobster

Palinurus Elephas have flattened and elongated
appendages.
- Laminar and filiform expansions, flagella, cilia,
tentacles, spines, bristles and feathery appendages are
very useful in increasing the surface area of the body
without becoming weighed down.
- Organisms from colder and therefore dense waters:
do not need to disproportionately increase their volume
to reach the density of seawater,
- while organisms from warmer areas: have more
appendages to try to reach the low density of warm
water.

22
23
24
PLANCTON

PLANKTON ADAPTATIONS

Other types of adaptations are :

Increase in cell surface area relative to volume. This increases resistance to affundation. For
example, the association of individuals in a colony helps a lot, as do diatoms that form threadlike
colonies. Other examples are salps, gelatinous tunicates that form ribbon-like colonies, increasing
their surface area and thus their friction with the water.

Reducing the size is also very important, this is because the speed of affsinking is directly
proportional to the size, so all other things being equal larger organisms will affonder faster than
smaller organisms. Larger organisms require other arrangements to float, such as colony
formation.

- Inside the cells are reserves of oils and fats (eggs of fish species, radiolarians and diatoms are rich in
lipids to stay afloat), as these compounds have lower densities than water, lightening the
organisms. Very common in crustaceans and diatoms, in the latter it is very easy to see their servings
under the microscope.

- Some organisms produce mucilaginous coatings that reduce density due to water absorption. Jellyfish
have a high rate of hydration (90% of their body weight is water) due to these mucilaginous emissions.

Replacing heavy ions with light ions (ion regulation) helps to reduce density.

- Other species have structures in which they accumulate air, vesicles filled with air and gas. These are
very diffuse adaptations, in many algae, in siphonors such as the Portuguese caravel, cyanobacteria.

- Many planktonic organisms have exoskeletons and shells, but these are transformed because they are
lighter than those of benthonic organisms to ensure suspension. These shells are so light that they
shatter when touched.

- Many planktonic organisms require large amounts of water to be in equilibrium with the medium in
whichthey live. The reduction or disappearance of coloured pigments, which give planktonic organisms
a high degree of transparency, is also helpful.

Moving into the deep sea, many

planktonic organisms are capable of
bioluminescence. Luciferase is oxidised
by the enzyme luciferase to produce light
that can be of varying wavelengths,
resulting in different colouration of the
organisms.

Bioluminescence is an important tool for

communication between species and
between individuals of the same species. In
some cases it is a constant feature, while
in some species it is triggered by
contingent events and therefore derived
from outside, the stimulus may be a wave
breaking on the beach, a bather passing
through a swarm of plankton.

VARIOUS BIOLUMINESCENT PLANKTONIC ORGANISMS

25
PLANKTON CLASSIFICATION
The plankton group is very heterogeneous, with viruses, coelenterates, ctenophores and so on. There are
several classification criteria that can be adopted.

1. The first classification is between Phytoplankton which includes the photosynthesising component
and Zooplankton which includes the component that consumes organic matter. Some components
such as bacteria and protists are missing.

2. The autotrophic and heterotrophic classification highlights the function of the species. In this
way wealso include bacteria and protists in both groups.

In the phytoplankton, there are three groups which are the most abundant: the Coccolithophores,
unicellular algae which possess carbonic plates, the Diatoms, and the Dinoflaggelates, which possess a
flagellum. Other groups are added to these large groups, including some photosynthetic bacteria.
3. Another distribution refers to the distribution according to distance from the sea coast:
- Neritic plankton (comprising mainly holoplanktonic organisms) living on the shelf
content. Neritic plankton is composed of larval stages of benthic species, i.e. Meroplankton, a series
of organisms that carry out certain parts of their life cycle in different parts (e.g. planktonic larvae,
benthic adults).
- Pelagic plankton (comprising holoplanktonic and meroplanktonic organisms), on the other hand, lives in
the open sea and
so beyond the continental shelf. Pelagic plankton, on the other hand, is characterised by organisms
that live their entire life cycle in suspension, and are called holoplankton organisms.

4. Classification according to vertical position in the water column, where the discriminating factor is
light:
- Phaeoplankton : plankton of the illuminated zone ( -1000 m )
- Knephoplankton : plankton from the shadow zone ( - 100m400 )
- Scotoplankton : plankton from the dark zone ( - 400m1500 )
- Nictoplankton : plankton of the dark zone (the only light present is that produced through the
bioluminescence ).
5. Classification based on functional characteristics, based on the circus of life:
- Holoplankton: organisms that spend their entire existence in the pelagic environment
- Meroplankton: planktonic organisms only for a short period of their life cycle (promotes the
dispersion ).

Holoplankton organisms include protozoa, cnidarians, ctenophores, some molluscs, some arthropods and some
urochordates.

26
 6. Classification based on the subdivision
of thepelagic region into planes:

Zona Epipelagica 0-200 m: epiplancton (fitoplancton e copepodi)

Zona Mesopelagica 200-1000 m: mesoplancton (poco fitoplancton, copepodi), infraplancton fra 200 e 500
m
Zona Batipelagica 1000-3000 m: batiplancton (copepodi diversi da quelli superficiali)
Zona Abissopelagica 3000-6000 m: abissoplancton (chetognati, anfipodi, misidacei)
Zona Adopelagica > 6000 m: adoplancton (anfipodi, ostracodi, copepodi)

Each species has to be adapted to its own depth

conditions for large differences in temperature,
pressure etc. at various heights in the water
column.

Two particular components of this classification :

1- are the Pleuston organisms that protrude from the surface and are therefore in contact
with the air, such as Velella velella (they can use the wind for transport by using special
structures).

2- the Neuston plankton that live in the first few centimetres of the surface exploiting the
surface tension of the water.

27
7. Classification based on trophic and structural criteria, deepening the various
groups. We distinguish :

- Virioplankton - formed by viruses are a very abundant component;

- Bacterioplankton formed by bacteria

- Mycoplankton that groups fungi and lichens (they can be important for decomposition);
- Phytoplankton formed from plant plankton;

- Protozooplankton comprising chlorophyll-free ciliates and flagellates;

- Metazooplankton grouping the multicellular organisms of animal plankton.

28
 8. DIMENSIONAL CLASSIFICATION

Classification based on size criteria, depending on

what you want to study, you have to use filters of
the appropriate size to be able to filter the water
and capture the desired organisms. Although the
abundance of smaller and simpler organisms is
higher, larger and more complex organisms provide
the greatest biomass. The categories according to
size classes are as follows

— The Femtoplankton or Virioplankton (size -0,02

0.2 microns) is the most abundant component in the oceans but the total biomass is obviously very low.
They are limited by low concentrations of nutrients (especially phosphates), as they follow the
concentration of the organisms they parasitise. They have densities ranging from 10^8/ml in coastal
waters to 10^6/ml in open sea waters. They are bacteriophagous but can infect all marine organisms.
Viral infection affects nutrient cycling, phytoplankton biomass, DOC production.

— Picoplankton or Bacterioplankton (size - 0,2micron2) includes both autotrophic and heterotrophic

bacterial organisms, both planktonic bacteria and neustonic bacteria (the plankton that live in the first
centimetres of the surface exploiting the surface tension of the water). They have various roles, such as
nitrogen fixation, nitrification, methanogenesis, denitrification, remineralisation, or transfer of organic
matter. Their density is between 10^6 - 10^7/ml in coastal waters and 10^4 - 10^6/ml in open sea
waters. Picoplankton bacteria are of various natures:
- Aerobic heterotrophs, the most abundant;
- Facultative or obligate anaerobic heterotrophs with various roles
ecological, such as decomposers such as spirilli and
spirochetes, or sulphatoridators such as those of the
genus Desulfovibrio, or methanogenic bacteria
- Autotrophs such as the families Chromatiaceae an d
Clhorobiaceae of anoxic, sunny, H2S-rich
environments;
- Chemosynthetics, such as nitrifiers, sulphur oxidants,
iron-oxidants etc.
Free bacteria suspended in water are more abundant in
the open sea where they use DOC. Epibacteria on
inorganic and organic particles (faecal skin and detritus)
are abundant in coastal waters linked to POM. In
general, bacteria are much more abundant in the
sediment than in the water column.

— Nanoplankton (size 2 - 20 microns) comprises protozoa with a density of tens of hundreds of

thousands of cells per millilitre. Nanoplankton organisms can be :
- Autotrophs such as the classes Cryptophyceae, Prasinophyceae, Primnesiophyceae, Euglenophyceae and
Chrysophyceae,
small forms of Dinoficeae and Diatoms;
- Heterotrophs such as flagellated protozoa, coanoflagellates, facultative autotrophic or non-pigmented
chrysomonads,
Unpigmented euglenoids, diniflagellates and helioflagellates predate Picoplankton and are preyed
upon by Microzooplankton.

NANOPLANKTON ORGANISMS

29
 - Microplankton (size 20 - 200 microns) comprises protozoa whose density in the sea ranges from tens
to hundreds of thousands of cells per millilitre of water.
- Important autotrophic microphytoplankton, including organisms of the classes Dinophyceae and Diatoms,
Chlorophyceae, Silicoflagellate, Cryptoflagellate, Prasinophyceae, Primnesiophyceae, Euglenophyceae and
Chrysophyceae.
- Heterotrophic microzooplankton including protozoa mainly ciliates-Tintinnidae, Radiolarians,
Foraminifera, Dinoflagellates and larval stages of Mesozooplankton. They are predators of
Nanoplankton and are preyed upon by Mesozooplankton, transferring energy from the microbial chain
to the classical chain. Organisms such as radiolarians with siliceous external structures are important
because when they die the structures fall to the bottom forming sediments.

MICROPLANKTON ORGANISMS

Together with the Dinoficeae, the diatoms are the most represented group in marine and freshwater
plankton.

The classification of Microplankton species is based on their shape (circular, triangular, square, eliptical,
etc.) and the perforations and ornamentation of the valves (punctae, alveoli, canapuli and costae).
- In centric diatoms with radiated symmetry, the
valve structure is organised concentrically from a
central point.
- In pinnate diatoms with bilateral symmetry
double, the cell shape is elongated in one direction,
they are mainly benthonic and often colonial
organisms.

The reproduction of these organisms takes place by

division, which leads to a progressive reduction in size
until the auxospores are formed (sexual reproduction),
which are formed by the rejection of the valves and an
increase in the cytoplasmic mass that is enclosed in
two larger valves.

30
— Mesoplankton (size 0.2 - 2 cm) include heterotrophic organisms such as crustaceans, and are the
classic zooplankton. They form 90% of the biomass of ocean plankton. Mesozooplankton is dominated by
crustaceans such as calanoid copepods, then amphipods, molluscs. They are the first heterotrophic link
in the classical trophic chain. They have an elongated shape and long antennae.

Speaking of Mesozooplankton, this group migrates through the water column throughout the day, thus
in cycles of hours24. They stay at greater depths during the day and rise steadily at night. It has
been observed in many species, they can
up to metres100.
The causes are many. :
- The main cause is that they apparently migrate for the light
and are used to less light.
- In addition, phytoplankton synthesise secondary metabolites
during the day that may be unpalatable to Mesozooplankton,
so they feed on them at night when these metabolites are at
their lowest.
- Another reason may be to escape predators.
- Finally, the circadian rhythms of this plankton may be the
cause, it becomes active during the night, rises, feeds, sinks
due to weight.

In general, many depth ranges of planktonic organisms migrate

through the water column over the course of the day, some
migrating more and some less, some faster and some slower. The
extent of migration is species-specific. The speed ranges from 10-
15 m/hour for copepods ascending and m/hour100 descending to
100-200m/hour for euphausians.

31
-

— Macrozooplankton (size > 20 cm) consists mainly of heterotrophic organisms, and is therefore often
called Macrozooplankton. This class consists of various groups such as Euphasiaceans, large Copepods,
larval forms of Decapods, Polychaetes, and then gelatinous plankton such as ctenophores.
They are not only heterotrophic organisms, there are some algae such as the Sargassum Bacciferum,
which gives its name to the Sargasso Sea. These are multicellular algae that float thanks to air-filled
vesicles and can therefore live on the surface. They are absent from the Mediterranean.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN PLANKTON

Currents are important in the distribution of

zooplankton. In addition, there are
relationships between phytoplankton,
zooplankton and seasonality. An increase in
phytoplankton corresponds to an increase in
zooplankton. Reducing phyto reduces zooplankton.
In spring there is a peak in phyto because there is
more light, more nutrients accumulated from the
winter rains. In autumn there is a small increase in
phyto and zooplankton due to the mixing of the
water and the return of nutrients.

32
PLANCTON
OLOPLANCTON

Holoplankton comprises Protozooplankton (zooplankton protozoa) and Metazooplankton (zooplankton

animals).
We present some groups of organisms from the Protozooplankton.

Foraminifera are a class of protozoa belonging to the phylum Sarcomastigofora, which can be either
holoplanktonic or meroplanktonic.
These organisms are characterised by the presence of the outer calcareous shell, often concamerated,
perforated by pores from which the cell emits pseudopods. Many species are benthonic, the pelagic ones
(such as the genera Globigerina, Orbulina and Miniacina) have loggias in the shell and long pseudopods (
phyllopods ) to facilitate flotation. When the individuals die, the shells form globigerine muds.

EXAMPLES OF FORAMINIFERA

Protozoa in general have a siliceous structure, except for those of the

Acanthus class which have a strontium sulphate skeleton. With the
death of the cell, the shell is deposited on the seabed, and where they
are very present, they strongly influence the nature of the sediment.
The Acantharians belong to the Sarcomastigofora, they are
essentially marine protozoa, they have a constant number of spicules
joining at the centre, and do not have a central capsule membrane.

Tintinnids belong to the Ciliates. They contain a macro and micro

nucleus and the lorica, the gelatinous capsule with an alveolar
structure and foreign concretions.

Among the flagellates we find the Coanoflagellates,

which live on the surface (they are part of the neuston),
have a flagellum and special forms. The forms with
chlorophyll are part of the phytoflagellates.

33
Among the Metazooplankton we find various groups including the following.

Cnidarians or Coelenterates (bruh jellyfish and all bruh polypaths) are animals with a sac-shaped body
with an orifice (mouth) to which the coelenteron, the gastrovascular cavity, is connected. They are ray-
symmetrical animals with tentacles and stinging cells (cnidocysts). The jellyfish form has a gelatinous
mesoglea which facilitates floating.
Among the Hydrozoa, the only holoplanktonic groups are the Siphonophores and the Trachylines. The
class of Scyphozoa has a missing or reduced polypoid stage. Finally, the Cubozoa are pelagic throughout
their life cycle.

Siphonophores are cnidarians that form

floating colonies with highly polymorphic
and specialised individuals (gastrozoid,
gonozoid, dactylozoid cells with
nematocysts). They have pneumatophores, i.e. a
bladder full of gas produced by glandular cells
which allows them to float.
Physalia Physalia (the Portuguese caravel) and
Velella Velella (St. Peter's boat) are part of the PORTUGUESE CARAVEL, BARCHETTA S.P.
pleuston, they move pushed by the wind. The
former reaches a length of several metres.

Many Ctenophores are holoplanktonic,

LEFT BEROE OVATA, RIGHT CESTUS VENERIS
the most famous species being Cestus
Veneris and Beroe Ovata. They have a
transparent and gelatinous body
(therefore very hydrated) with no
cnidoblasts. They have a sensory organ
called statocyst at the aboral pole, and
eight rows of combs (ctenes) made of
agglutinated cilia that help them to float.
They catch their prey with tentacles that
have adhesive cells.

Of the Platyhelminthes phylum, only a few species of the class Turbellaria are holoplanktonic. For
example, some species of the family Microstoma, possess a foliaceous appearance, are part of the
neritic plankton, and move through the action of cilia that cover the surface of the body.

Of the Nemertini phylum, only the family Pelagonemertini (genera Pelagonemertes, Planktonemertes
and Nectonemertes) leads planktonic life in deep waters (200 - m3000).

Rotifers are abundant in freshwater (only the Seisonoidea are marine),

especially in summer. They are among the smallest Metazoa, possessing
crowns of cilia whose undulatory movement makes the animal move by
whirling.

Of the Polychaete phylum, only a few families of polychaetes are entirely

part of the holoplankton, such as the Alciopidae, Tifloscoleicidae and
Tomopteridae. Benthic species are very diverse, having both erratic and
sessile forms. Holoplanktonic species have transparent, segmented bodies
with locomotor organs equipped with bristles (parapodia), generally
expanded.

34
Crustaceans are among the most representative groups of plankton.

Among the holoplanktonic species are the freshwater Cladocera (a few

marine species such as Penilia avirostris), which are more abundant in the
warm months. They have a ventrally open shell-shaped carapace and two pairs
of antennae, the second longer pair being used for movement. They reproduce
heterogeneously, alternating between amphigonic and parthenogenetic
reproduction.

Ostracods are a group of crustaceans with a body enclosed within a shell-

like shell formed by two valves that join dorsally and can be opened by a
muscle. The family Halocyprididae is the only planktonic one, the genus
Conchoecia being the best known.

Calanoid Copepods are small crustaceans that are eaten by small

carnivores and begin the trophic web. They are the most abundant group
in the zooplankton. They can be recognised by their shrimp-like shape,
with a body divided into a cephalosome, thorax and a small abdomen. 5
segments in the thorax and 5 in the abdomen, antennae in the head and
a terminal bifurcation called furca. Each body segment has a pair of
appendages to manipulate food. Among the most used taxonomic
characters for recognition is the fifth foot, appendage of the 5th thoracic
segment, which is detached with tweezers, mounted on an optical slide
and observed under the microscope.

Other groups are the Misidacea, which are organisms that move within the
water column. They have eyes on peduncles, a transparent body and possess
statocysts like ctenophores.

Cumaceans are a group associated with algae, some species are

holoplanktonic. They have a large carapace while the abdomen part is very
thin and elongated, ending in a kind of frontal spine extending on two sides
of the body (sea scorpions wtf??). They live on the bottom but can be found
in plankton at night.

Amphipods are mainly benthic crustaceans, but some species are

holoplanktonic, including the family Hyperidae, which have a squat, laterally
compressed shape and large eyes. Some amphipods live inside pelagic tunicates
where they raise offspring, as in the picture opposite.

Euphasiaceans are the most abundant group after copepods

and often form swarms of krill, their biomass in the sea is very
large. They are shrimp-like, without incubator pockets and have
photophores. Their size does not exceed cm.5

35
Molluscs are a predominantly benthic group but some gastropods are holoplanktonic.

Pteropods (sea butterflies) have transformed their feet into two wing-like
expansions for movement. They are phytophagous, the phytoplankton
being agglutinated and conveyed to their mouths by means of cilia.
When dead, their small calcareous shells form pteropod mud; they live
up to m500 depth.

Heteropods are gastropods with a foot that turns into a fin, which
they use to swim upside down with their foot up. They live in warm,
temperate seas, are carnivorous, and some have a small calcareous
shell.
Heteropods of the genus Janthina are Pleustonica, they have a shell
that floats on the surface of the water and possess a gelatinous
substance to help them float. They feed on Portuguese caravels.

Ketognaths are a phylum with a transparent, elongated,

stick-shaped body (10 - 80 mm) with lateral expansions
that look like fins to increase surface area. They are
carnivores and have mouths surrounded by jaw-like hooks
to capture prey. They move in a jerky, arched body,
living at m600 depth.

Among the echinoderms there are some holoplanktonic species, such as

some holothurians (Pelagoturoidae) like Pelagina Natatrix, a tropical
deep-water holothurian with very long mouth tentacles joined at the base
by a membrane to facilitate floating.

Several tunicates are part of the holoplankton, they have a gelatinous and transparent body.

Appendicolaria have a small ovoid body and a very long tail (relative to
the body). They have a transparent, gelatinous envelope, but no tunic.
They are filter feeders, an example is Oikopleura Dioica.

The Taliaceae are tunicates of warm, temperate seas, living up to 300

m. In this group we find the salps, which by budding form colonies of
individuals that form a ribbon-like chain. The species of the family
Pyrosomidae form luminescent colonies.

36
MEROPLANCTON

Meroplankton comprises almost all marine species that spend part of their life cycle as plankton. It
consists of eggs and larval stages of benthonic and nectonic organisms. The abundance of temporary
plankton varies according to the life cycle of the various species.

Porifers have short-lived pelagic and planktonic larvae, while adults are purely benthic.

While among the cnidarians :

- Hydrozoa have larval stages of jellyfish produced by budding from sessile polypoid forms
- Scyphozoa have larval stages called efires and adults are jellyfish.
- Anthozoa : eggs and larvae (planula)

Some turbellarians including polyclads have planktonic larvae (Muller's larvae).

The larvae of nemertines are pilidium, a helmet form equipped with ciuffo of cilia.

Many polychaetes have meroplanktonic trochophore larvae that later begin to exhibit segmentation
(metatrophore stage), parapodia and bristles, increasingly resembling adults (nectochaeta stage).

Bryozoans have cyphonid larvae with cilia on the lower rim. They have different characters but always
have expansions, transparency and so on. Their adults are benthic.

Phoronidae have actinotrophic larvae with a very long pelagic life. Adults live in tubes produced by
them and immersed in mud.

Crustaceans have various types of larvae:

- Entomostracae: they begin at Nauplius with only pairs3 of appendages and a single eye, then become
Metanauplium with pairs5 of appendages, then Copepodite (in copepods) or Cypris (in barnacles, bivalve
form).
- In the Malacostracians: Nauplius -> Protozoa -> Zoea (shrimp with stalked eyes) -> Mysis /
Megalopa (in crabs) / Phyllosoma (in lobsters )

Some molluscs have planktonic larvae:

- Placophora, some Gastropods and Bivalves have larvae
trochophore
- Others have veliger larvae (more advanced stage in which the
Gastropods and many Bivalves hatch) with expanded appendages
and cilia.
- Cephalopods have eggs rich in reserve materials and do not
have larval stages.

37
Ascidians are benthic organisms with planktonic larval forms. Their larvae have a short pelagic life and
dorsal cord. Other larvae have a globular cord.

Some fish species have planktonic larvae. From the egg there is
embryonic development until hatching, the larvae cannot swim. The
larvae often have their yolk sac attached. As they grow, the sac is
reabsorbed, at which point they open their mouths and begin to
feed, until they become juveniles in which they can swim
independently.
Many species have particular pigmentations and are therefore
taxonomic characters.
The larval stage lasts from a few 2weeks.10

Zooplankton is therefore a very heterogeneous group with important dimensional characters for
categorisation.

PLANKTON SAMPLING

In order to sample plankton, you need to know the dimensional quantities.

Instruments for sampling zooplankton include nets of varying sizes depending on the organisms to be
sampled; organisms smaller than the mesh of the net can enter and leave, while larger organisms remain
inside. These nets are composed of metal rings to which the net is tied to form a cone with an open base
through which the water enters. At the tip of the cone is a terminal cup, called a collector, in which the
water enters.
where planktonic organisms will be stored. Once
immersed in the water, it is tied up by the boat
using lines, and is then towed by the boat at low
speed. After a few minutes the net is taken up
again.

With these nets, qualitative sampling is effected, it will

not be possible to relate the number of species per
volume of water and therefore abundances will not be
quantifiable. Specific instruments such as flowmeters
will have to be used to calculate the volume of water
that has passed through the net.

Other nets known as Nansen nets are lowered vertically.

Niskin bottles are used for phytoplankton, as there are no

nets with a tight enough mesh to trap them.

Plankton samples will be fixed to a substrate using fixatives

or by freezing (but not completely) and then analysed
under a microscope. Either the whole sample is analysed or
sub-samples representative of the total sample are formed.
Species are identified and individuals of each species are
counted. Opposite is a sample of fixed plankton.

38
39
BENTHOS

Benthos is composed of organisms that have relationships with the marine substrate. Depending on the
classification of the seabed we will find different organisms. In the epipelagic zone we find the
continental shelf, which ends when the depths increase to the continental slope (important for the
transfer of materials from the coast to the depths). The escarpment ends at the bathyal plane, then the
abyssopelagic zone with the abyssal plain, in the adopelagic zone there are oceanic trenches.
Then we divided the surface sea into the neritic zone next to the coast and the continental shelf For
convenience we separate into a littoral region and a deep region. The separation between the two
regions is represented by the margin of the continental shelf (between i and120 i m200).
Abyssal plains account for 85 % of the surface area of the oceanic substrate. Escarpments, shelves and
trenches account for the remaining 15%.

As with the water column, moving from the littoral zone to deeper areas, there will be different species
variation, due to changes in water variables as depth changes.

The benthonic compartment is not entirely

separate from the planktonic compartment,
but is very closely related to it, e.g.
meroplankton often consists of organisms that
will live on the seabed as adults. An
alteration of one compartment has effects
on the other. Many planktonic organisms
leave behind exoskeletons at death, which
chemically affect the seabed. Separation
from other compartments is dictated solely
by the convenience of the researcher.

Benthos is a more stable compartment than plankton. While plankton is influenced by currents or
weather conditions, the substrate is much more stable, which is why it is said that benthos is a
compartment that 'remembers' past events, whereas plankton does not give information about the past.

40
CLASSIFICATION OF BENTHOS
It is a very complex sector, ranging from micro to mega in size. What criteria can we use to classify

1. Banally we can distinguish between phytobenthos and zoobenthos, i.e. between autotrophic and
heterotrophic organisms. The vertical distribution of phytobenthos is limited as it is conditioned by
light and the type of substrate.
Heterotrophic zoobenthos is present in all depths.

2. The different modes of motility are also used as criteria:

- sessile organisms, which spend their adult life attached to the substrate, and except for larvae, mobility
is
nothing. They are corals, sponges, mussels
- Sedentary organisms, which move little in terms of both space and time. These are the echinoderms
- Vagile organisms, actively moving in both spatial and temporal terms. They are
decapods, small crustaceans
- Swimming organisms, swimming on the seabed and occasionally stationary. They are cephalopods, fish
that
have close contact.

3. Size can also be used for classification; the categories are the same as for plankton, with one order
of magnitude increments from one category to another:
- Femtobenthos including viruses
- Picobenthos comprising prokaryotes and small eukaryotes
- Nanobenthos with autotrophic and heterotrophic components. Of the autotrophs we find diatoms, of the
heterotrophs
we find flagellates
- Microbenthos with dominance of micro-phyto-benthos diatoms that are on all substrates, and micro-
zoo-benthos with protozoa.
- Meiobenthos ranging in size from tens of microns to 500 microns. Usually 63 microns is used as a limit
smaller because of the size of the nets used to catch it. It is made of small organisms, we find some
diatoms, but mainly nematodes and Harpacticoid copepods which lack long antennae, body with
cephalothorax and abdomen of similar size.
- Macrobenthos greater than mm0,35 up to cm22
- Megabenthos above cm2
Size ranges are variable, so when doing a search you must indicate the chosen size limits you are using
for the search.

41
In plankton from the mesoplankton upwards, the autotrophic component disappears, but not in the
benthos, because macro-algae and plants are found at larger sizes. In kelp forests there are algae tens of
metres long.
The distinction between the category is variable during the life cycle. Juveniles of the macrobenthos
may be part of the microbenthos.

4. The relationship they have to the substrate can be a criterion for categorisation.
Primary substrates are inorganic such as rocks, sands and muds, secondary substrates are given by the
organisms themselves. Organisms living on the surface of the substrate are epibenthos, organisms living
inside the substrate are endobenthos.
Organisms living on primary substrates are :
- Epilithon live on rock ,
- Epipsammon or psammophilous species live on the sand (starfish),
- Epipelic or pelophilic species live on mud (clitelli).
Organisms living on secondary substrate are divided into :
- Epiphytes living on plants (gastropods living on leaves, or red algae on posidonia),
- Epizoa living on animals (cnidarians living on hermit crabs). Organisms living on whales or large animals
pelagics, they are however benthonic
- Anthropogenic objects can also be used as substrates for benthonic organisms.
Endobionts include :
- Infauna organisms living within soft substrates such as sand or mud.
- Endolithon rock-piercing organisms.
- Borers or perforants are organisms that perforate plant tissue in general. Some polychaetes manage to
live inside lignified portions of posidonia leaves.
The organisms of the endofauna still have a relationship with the water column, for example to find
food.

In addition to epifauna and endofauna, there is also the mesopsammon composed of microscopic
organisms living between grains of the substrate.

42
5. Classification based on hydrodynamic criteria, it is
alittle used classification:

- Reofile are species of areas of strong currents, therefore

between headlands and islands where currents
flow, or lagoon openings. They are species
adapted to the high hydrodynamics, if sessile they
are tenaciously anchored and with stocky bodies.
The organisms here are especially filter feeders,
due to the large movement of organic matter.

- Cumatophilous species are species that live in areas with

strong wave motion. The organisms here are filter feeders

- Galenophiles are species that live in sheltered areas.

and therefore of calm waters (the coralligenous
species). They can be branched and more
expansive.

43
6. Classification is based on feeding strategies, taking into account :
- Size of the resource used.
We distinguish microphages that can be active or passive suspensions
that feed on particulate matter,
detritivores that eat sediment in search of organic matter, grazers that feed on plant or animal
organisms.
Or they can be macrophages that feed on large things and we distinguish predators that actively feed
on live prey (by pursuit, ambush or foraging), necrophagous that feed on dead organisms, and grazers
(of plants, animals and parasites).

- Type of resource.
- According to the type of resource we distinguish: carnivores feeding on animal tissue,
herbivores
which feed on vegetal tissues (gastropods and urchins are the only ones with cellulase enzymes) and in
the Mediterranean there is only salpa of fish, detritivores which feed on materials with a low
nutritional value (organic detritus, bacteria, fungal hyphae), omnivores which have mixed animal and
vegetable date and detritus.

- Compartment in which the resource is located. If the resource is in the water column it is a suspension or
filter,
if it is at the surface of the substrate they are superficial detritivores, if it is within the sediment they
are sub-surface detritivores or limivorous.

- Food seeking and associated motility.

sessile organisms are essentially suspensory,
vagiles may be carnivorous or herbivorous or detritivorous,
while sedentary individuals are frequentlysuperficial detritivores or limivores.

- Structures involved in finding food.

Smaller organisms often have apparatuses involved in food search.
Mouthparts vary greatly according to diet, carnivores have jaws, herbivores have radishes, cnidarians
possess specialised cells such as cnidoblasts. Limivores and detritivores have structures to filter
material such as tentacles, palps and siphons. Limivores often have soft proboscises which they eject
to ingest sediment.

- Ethological aspects. Many organisms live in caves to escape predators and avoid adverse conditions,
They can obtain food from the water column by means of siphons. Some polychaetes form U-shaped
tubes in the sediment. Some are mobile predators, others are fixed predators. Pivoting organisms live
in soft substrates and reach out from it for food.

44
BENTHOS

BENTHOS SYSTEMATICS

Let us now look at the main benthos groups.

We find diatoms, unicellular algae characterised by a transparent siliceous shell. Benthos diatoms can be
either sessile or free-living, and play an important ecological role.

In this case the plant component is important, the micro-phyto-benthos consisting mainly of diatoms.
There are few colonial forms because they do not need to float on the seabed. They have thicker silicon
shells than planktonic ones.
Moving on to larger sizes we find protozoa including ciliates, flagellates and foraminifera, with different
adaptations, with thicker and heavier shells.

ALGAS AND PLANTS

We find lots of green and brown algae

Common species of green algae on our coast include Caulerpa Prolifera which we find in sheltered areas,
C. Racemosa and Taxifolia are not native to the Mediterranean. Racemosa and Taxifolia are not native to
the Mediterranean. Taxifolia is the famous killer algae, which escaped from a monk's aquarium and
spread to the Mediterranean, despite early fears of species supplantation.
indigenous so it was not. The
racemosa is much more common as
on the Egadi Islands. Caulerpa
Prolifera has a kind of basal stolon
with adhesion structures called
thallus that look like small roots,
which allow it to adhere also to soft
substrates. Halimeda Tuna is a
carbonate species with a hard
thallus, typical of tropical and coral
zones but also in some areas of ours.
Chaetomorpha is a filamentous algae
that forms tangles within which
crustaceans often find shelter and
nourishment.

Among the brown algae is Cystoseira of

the hard substrates, which forms
carbonate fouling. Various types of
organisms live within the hard thalli of
brown algae. They form dense
vegetation zones. Padina Pavonica
forms carbonate encrustations, the
filamentous Nemalion algae, Laminaria
is a genus little diffused in the
Mediterranean because it is typical of
cold environments and forms kelp
forests. Sargassum has auriferous
vesicles that allow the alga to reach
the surface and drift if it detaches from
the substrate.

45
Among the red algae there are some sciaphilous algae, adapted to swaying. We find them in somewhat
darker and more sheltered areas, many species are calcareous algae, almost like pink mats covering the
rocks.

Among the Phanerogamous plants of the Benthos we find species that have returned to the sea from the
land. In the Mediterranean we find the mythical Posidonia Oceanica, an endemic species. Na common
species is Cymodocea Nodosa and Zostera Nolti from coastal areas. Halophila Stipulacea is a Red Sea
plant that is expanding towards western areas, more slowly. They are plants that reproduce asexually by
stolon or sexually by production of flowers and fruits that do not have to be as showy as terrestrial ones.

ANIMALS
Among the poriferous we find species with different shapes and colours.

Of the cnidarians most species are meroplanktonic, while many are benthonic. The entozoans are the
species exclusively in the form of solitary sedentary polyps or colonialists. They are the coralligenous
species.

Some lesser-known groups are platyhelminths such as the turbellarians that live among the bottom particles.
The nemertines stand out for their colouration.

Tardigrades and nematodes are part of the microfauna, and have very elaborate feeding strategies.
Gnathostomulidae are a phylum of vermiform animals belonging to the mesopsammon, of which
Gnathostomula Mediterranea is common in the Mediterranean Sea.
Lophophorates possess the :
- The bryozoans are colonial forms built up by very large numbers of individuals, the Zoidae, of size
microscopic. Each of these oids secretes a calcified or thinner horny skeleton. This results in colons of
various shapes from arborescent and bushy to encrusting plates on the substrate.
- Brachiopods, sessile suspensory benthonic organisms.
- Phoronidae live in self-secreting chitinous tubes in which they move freely, affossessed.
in sand or fixed to solid substrates.

Sipunculidae are detritivorous organisms with a sac-like body that can be deformed by muscle
deformations. They have a flexible proboscis with which they dig tunnels in sand and mud. In our coasts
they live in worm reefs and inhabit cavities.

Echiurids are represented by Bonella Viridis

Polychaete annelids include free-living wandering annelids, and sedentary annelids fixed to the substrate by
means of a carbonate tube secreted by the animal, or tubes due to the aggregation of sediment particles
that are cemented with secreted substances. In sedentary organisms, feeding takes place through
filtering fans.
46
 Many classes of molluscs including polyplacophora, gastropods, bivalves and scaphopods. Among the
bivalves is the Pinna Nobilis, which lives partially sunken in the substrate and whose populations have
been decimated by a pathogen. Another bivalve is the mussel. Finally, the scaphopods live in elephant
tusk-shaped structures.

Crustaceans include copepods with squat bodies, barnacles such as balani that colonise rocks and reefs,
Lepas Anatifera that lives in colonies on the substratum, isopods or crustaceans of a few millimetres that
have a clear difference of body shape, decapods including shrimps and hermit crabs and lobsters.

Echinoderms include starfish, sea urchins, holothurians and crinoids. They are species with reduced
movements, more related to sedentary life.

Of the tunicates we find ascidians in solitary or colonial form, appendiculars and

thaliaceans. Among the cephalocordates like the amphioxus, which live partially

sunken.

Cyclostomes such as lampreys are organisms with transformed mouthparts with circularly placed teeth with
which they adhere to the bodies of large fish.

Then we have benthonic fish such as flatfish, soles, seahorses, which adhere to plants with their terminal
part. Peacock damselfish and Coris Julis mongrels live on the bottom.

BENTHOS ZONING(European and American)

Studies in the last century have sought to create zones of the benthos, by identifying zones with specific
populations (biocenoses) associated with them. Zoning can refer to space (large scale : biogeographical
zoning, or small scale : ecological zoning) or to time. There are two schools :
- The European one, with the Peres and Picard manual, which gives importance to chemical and physical
factors (such as
exposure, currents, salinity, grain size etc.) on the distribution of species.
- The American one that gives importance to the presence of biotic factors (predation and
competition)that
structure populations within the seabed.

The European School divides the sea system into the phytic zone which corresponds to the most coastal
zone and includes photosynthesising organisms, and the aphital system in which there is no autotrophic
component; the division is the continental shelf.
The most distinctive character is the distinction of the Benthonic domain into planes. These planes are
vertical spaces in the benthonic domain where ecological conditions are constant or vary regularly within
two critical levels represented by the plane boundaries. The planes are separated into ecotones.
Starting from
- Overhead plan the splash zone,
- Mesolithic plane which is the area of the
tidal excursions,
- Intra-coastal plane where the
99% of sunlight and no more plants
- Plan about shoreline to metres200, and
then
- Batial plane containing the escarpment
continental and a little beyond
- Abyssal plane to the edge of the pits
oceanic
- Adal plan in relation to pits
ocean

47
In these planes, depending on the characteristic of the substrate, there are specific populations. There
are littoral plans with fine sands where there are species that live sunken.
In the infralittoral plane if there are fine muddy sands there will be Caulerpe, more detritivores. Moving
towards the circalittoral with fine coastal sediments we find coralligenous organisms, infossating
organisms.

BENTHOS SAMPLING
In order to sample the substrate, one must first see the type of substrate and the size to be sampled.

In mobile bottoms, a much-studied component is the macro-zoobenthos, which is mainly characterised

by crustaceans, polychaetes and molluscs. Monitoring studies to assess the environmental status are
important to know about these groups.3

1. The tool used for soft bottoms is the Bucket, a metal

instrument made of two portions that are opened,
loweredonto the sediment and the contact with the bottom
allows a portion of the sediment to be fished out. On
ascending, the two parts close by weight and store the
sediment. The most common bucket is the Van Veen
bucket, which has flaps at the top to inspect the freshly
taken sample, because if the bucket is lowered onto stones
it cannot catch them. The flap can be useful because in
sediment samples it is useful to combine chemical analysis.
On the boat, the sediment is then sieved into metal
structures with grates on the sides and rinsed with sea
water to direct the sediment towards a sieve. In this way
the particles
- The sample is usually fixed immediately to prevent degradation of organic matter, using formalin or
alcohol.
The bucket still gives an indication of the macro-zoobenthos because we can make an estimate of the
sediment in the volume collected.

SEDIMENT FILTRATION PROCESS ON THE VESSEL

2. Other harvesting tools are dredges(draga). They have

a wire mesh embedded in a metal frame that is
dragged across the seabed and towed by a boat to
scrape the bottom. The wire mesh can have
different mesh sizes. However, the dredger does not
give us any information about the amount of
sediment scraped. The rectangular dredge with an
opening of about centimetres60 is considered a
standard tool for the study of marine benthos in soft
bottoms due to its practicality and economy of use.

48
 3. Some transformed dredgers sift through the
sediment-water column interface, and are called
sledges because they slide over the sediment in the
appropriate way. The sledge does not affonda into
the sedimentbut slides over it.

If you want to do perfect quantitative sampling you need appropriate instruments to know the sampled
area. When the bucket picks up the sample, washout processes can occur due to the water passing through
the sample as it rises. It also does not maintain sratification.

4. If you want to characterise the different layers of the sediment, you need a box-corer, an
instrumentthat takes samples that maintain the initial stratification. It is a Plexiglas tube mounted on
a triangular frame that collects sediment cores. When it reaches the substrate, the tube goes inside
the substrate, and once it comes out there is a mechanism that snaps the lower end of the tube shut.
There are also multiple corers.

5. In shallow environments, cores can be taken manually

using hand-held core drills, plastic tubes with two
plugs.
The open tube is inserted into the sediment until the
desired depth is reached, the upper cap is put on,
creating a vacuum that allows the core drill to be pulled
out without dropping the sediment. Once the sediment is
completely out of the core, the lower cap is put on.

The sediment core should then be cleaned and sieved. In

some monitoring studies it is sufficient to sieve to 1 mm, if
larger animals are involved, larger mesh sieves will be used.
The sample is then placed in plastic bottles and fixed with
formalin.

49
The organisms themselves can also serve as substrates, so how can they be studied?
6. Epifauna nets are used, nets with rectangular mouths connected to a variable mesh net. The net ends
with an open tube which connects to a smaller collecting net on which the organisms accumulate.
To operate it, the net has to be moved jerkily over the plant component, with a movement that
allows the animals to fall onto the lower part of the plants.

7. On hard substrates there is no need to sample the sediment and only the biological component is
collected. On vegetated hard sediments and we want to study the vagile fauna, we use the
Sorbonne, a kind of hoover. A tube connected to a compressed air canister. Opening the canister
creates a vacuum at one end of the tube, sucking up water and materials at the other end. At the
closed end of the tube there is a net to collect the collected animals. This is qualitative sampling.

8. To do quantitative analysis, squares are used, which are squares of open metal or plastic delimiting a
known area of substrate that will be aspirated with the Sorbonne. The square is thrown by the
operator in a random manner. They are very diffuseful because of the simplicity of creation and use.
They are widely used to estimate densities of algal thalli or leaf fascicles. They are used to estimate
densities of mega-benthos such as hedgehogs. In the case of plants, the squares have an internal grid
to facilitate the counting of bundles. The size of the square depends on the size and density of the
target species.

9. To sample the sessile component on hard substrate, non-destructive methods such as photography
can be used and then analysed using software. Particularly useful in protected areas and when
analyses are not to be carried out on species but only on populations. If it is necessary to take the
sample, the square is always used.

The encrusting component should be collected by hand with hammers and containers. For encrusting
species it is useful to have estimates of coverage by photography.

50
NECTON

It is the last of the large 3 marine groups. They are pelagic organisms with high agility. They too can be
distinguished according to their position in the water column, following the plane classification.

CLASSIFICATION OF NECTON
Necton derives from the Greek natal, a name coined by Haeckel in 1890. It is the group of animals that
actively swim, opposing the motion of the currents.
It is a less heterogeneous group than the previous two:
- Fish are dominant, fish species16.700 and only cartilaginous 1000fish, but probably 10.000
deep-sea species and extreme environments have yet to be classified.
- Among the invertebrates are cephalopod molluscs, about species1000 (squid and calamari), most of
which are cephalopods.
of molluscs is part of the benthos and plankton.

Some organisms are returnees, i.e. organisms which, after having evolved on land, have returned to
marine environments.
- Marine reptiles include species110, turtles7, crocodiles2, iguanas1 and swimming snakes.
- Some seabirds, penguins, gulls, puffins.
- Mammals include cetaceans and pinnipeds.
Moving towards deeper areas organisms will be subjected to increasingly extreme conditions. At the
surface there are hardy zone species with specific behaviour and colouration, at depth high pressures
and darkness and low nutrient environments influence form and behaviour.

51
Another classification is related to the compartment of the water column to which the organism
belongs:

- Planktonecton :
organisms that are swimming but have a reduced swimming capacity, and are thereforeinfluenced by
the
currents. There are also non-swimming larval forms of species that will later be fully part of the
necton.
- Eunecton: is the true nekton, always pelagic species.
- Nectobenthos or Benthoecton:
species that actively swim near the bottom, but do not havepermanent contacts with it.

- Xeronecton:
Intruder organisms, includes air-breathing vertebrates that have a relationship withpartial with
the sea.
abyssal pelagic forms adapted to high pressure and the absence of light.

52
CHARACTERISTICS OF NECTON/ADAPTATIONS
1. They are organisms that have to overcome the force of gravity, so they have to be able to float.
- The presence of fat promotes buoyancy.
- Other organisms have air sacs (lungs lol).
- Swimming itself also aids buoyancy.
- A particular organ of fish is the swim bladder, a bladder that contains air and can be
compressed by expelling gas, increasing in density and thus sinking, or expanded by absorbing gas and
decreasing in density and thus rising.

2. Other adaptations and characteristics concern swimming:

- Slim and affusolate shapes, pointed head to reduce friction with water.
- Fish fins help in swimming direction, mammals have also developed them for
convergent evolution. The caudal fin generally acts as a propeller.
- Many fish have eliminated scales or reduced them in general. Scales are important
for benthonic fish, but they are structures that increase friction with the water and are therefore
unfavourable for swimming.
- Light-coloured belly and dark back to escape predators.

3. Some of the common characteristics of surface

nectonic fish :
- Slim and affusolate shape.
- The fins are generally small and in some cases
(more skilled swimmers) the pectoral ones have a
groove behind them so that when they bend
over the belly they form a continuation of the
skin, reducing friction even more.
- The tail is forked and has a rigid peduncle.
for propulsion.
- In superficial fish, it is common to see a colour
dark on top and a light one underneath, to blend
in with the dark bottom and the light surface in
the eyes of prey or predators.

4. Some of the fish in the mesopelagic and dysphotic zone make vertical migrations. Some common
charactersamong the
migratory and non-migratory deep-sea fish are :
- Uniform colouring because it is pointless to colour when there is little light, opting for black or
black-silvered
- Large eyes to absorb as much light as possible
- Photophores, secondary sensory organs for capturing light
- Large mouths but small body size
5. Migratory and non-migratory deep-sea fish differentiate in the following ways
- Migratory fish have well-developed bones, swim bladders and well-developed muscles, all adaptations
to the need to be able to move through the water column efficiently.
- Non-migratory fish have no swim bladders, weak bones and flaccid muscles. They have mouths with
affilated teeth and expandable jaws to prey on large organisms, there is little prey in the depths so
eating when possible is necessary.

53
 NECTON ORGANISMS

FISH
Fish belong to the chordate phylum, and to the vertebrate sub-phylum. They are divided into
cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchs) and bony fishes (Teleostei).

The mouth is indicative of eating habits, size and position tell us a lot:
- Mouth overhangs upwards and is of fish feeding on the surface
- Terminal or median mouth is placed in the middle of the mouth indicates diet not
specialised and is a great swimmer
- Underwater mouth is downward facing and is of fish that feed on the bottom.
The tail also indicates a lot:
- Forked tails are typical of swimmers, often associated with stalks.
muscular, it serves to boost the known
- Bad swimmers have stubby and rounded or truncated tails.
The shape of the pectoral fins changes according to lifestyle:
- They are positioned towards the belly in fast swimmers
- They are positioned towards the flanks in the skillful manoeuvres

FISH SCHOOLS AND SHOALS

Fish can form schools and shoals as they swim.
- A school is a group of fish swimming in synchrony with the same speed and direction; individuals
maintain the same distance from each other.
- A shoal are a group of fish that form a group randomly.

Schools and shoals are generally monospecific (made up of fish of one species), but can also be
multispecific.
There are various effects (including a number of disadvantages and advantages) to forming schools and
shoals.
- Pro : The herds move as one, thus protecting
themselves from predators becausethey get
confused and cannot choose.
- Cons: Increases the possibility of being noticed
by predators, including aircraft.
- Pro : Searching for food in a pack or shoal is
easier because you can mix up the prey
- Cons: There is more intraspecific competition
for food (poorly fed fish form shoals). smaller)
- Pro : Saves energy, fish at the end of the
school use the wake of the previous ones, thus
saving money.
energy for swimming, they are often sick or
weak fish
- Pros : greater accuracy in navigating migrants
(e.g. salmon)
- Schools or shoals can also be formed by predators with a greater chance of success
Formation of hierarchies

54
Cartilaginous fishes, or elasmobranchs, are apex
speakers, and are mostly sharks and rays and eagle rays.
- There are about 50 species in the Mediterranean.
- They are large carnivores and excellent predators due
to their aerodynamic shape, caudal fin, series of fast-
moving teeth, friction-reducing placoid scales,
ventrally positioned mouth, highly evolved sensory
system of sight, smell and lateral line.
They are internally fertilised organisms that can be
oviparous, viviparous and ovoviviparous, and their
gestation can last up to 2 years

Cephalopods are the only group of nectonic

invertebrates.
- They vary in size, giant squids larger than
15 metres.
- They are squid, octopus and nautilus.
- About 1000 species, wide bathymetric
range.
- They often have well developed eyes and
ink glands to escape predators.
- They are active predators, their tentacles
with suckers favour the capture and
manipulation of preys.
- The chambers of the Nautilus shell contain
a proportion of water and air that allows
stabilisation at a certain depth. Cuttlefish and octopus are associated with the substrate.

Aquatic marine reptiles include turtles, which have a relationship with both the marine (reproduction
and growth) and terrestrial (spawning) environments.
Most species are covered by horny plates (Chelonidae) while some are
without (Dermochelidae).
- They can be herbivorous, carnivorous (feeding on jellyfish, salps and
gelatinous zooplankton) or omnivorous.
- As adults they have few predators, birds often preying on their young,
while lizards and crabs feed on their eggs.
- Caretta Caretta turtles are increasing in abundance in recent years
thanks to awareness raising. They are very susceptible to plastic
pollution, are often soffocate they eat plastic bags mistaking them for
jellyfish, and generally eat large quantities.

- Only one species of iguana is marine, the Amblyrhinchus cristatus of

the Galapagos. They are black and move between emerged and
submerged areas feeding underwater. At night they group together
for warmth. They have strong and long tails for swimming, mouth
shot different from terrestrial ones.

55
 Seabirds have salt glands to secrete salts, they live in colonies,
penguins are flightless and are carnivores.
There are main 4 groups:
Penguins, pelicans, seagulls and albatrosses.

- Penguins are accustomed to arctic areas so they have thick

layers of fat and wings that have been
transformed to
allow swimming, catch fish
- Pelicans are found in transitional zones, are large in size, colourful and live in zones
close to the mainland
- Gulls are omnivores, live in colonies and are the most diverse group. Accustomed to many environments,
even in city sigh.

- Petrels and albatrosses are colonial, and many species are migratory.

Marine mammals are viviparous and homeothermic.

- They exchange up to 90% of their air with each breath.
- They reduce oxygen consumption in diving by decreasing
heart rate, reduced blood flow to non-vital areas and
concentrated on brain.

CLASSIFICATION MAMMALS:

56
 NECTON MOVEMENT AND MIGRATION

Local and seasonal movements are small and are daily migrations. We have already seen this for
zooplankton. These movements are for the purpose of searching for resources such as food, shelter or
partners.
Examples are the vertical migrations of necton as a result of plankton movements, the movement of
birds such as albatrosses between islands where they feed and others where they breed.
Necton movements according to distance are divided into :
- Dispersion, which is a move away from the breeding habitat, while remaining
in its vicinity.
- Migration, there is a shift between separate and well-defined areas.
ADVANTAGES:

- Moving away from

unfavorable
environmental
conditions

- Improving breeding
success

- Maintaining goof feeding

opportunities

DISADVANTAGES:

- Energy cost

- Having to adapt

- Increase risk of
predation

57
NECTON STUDY
To study necton,

- visual censuses can be made by divers on transects of defined size (necto-benthonic organisms).

- Pelagic species are studied through experimental fishing campaigns, using catches to determine
abundances, dynamics and so on.

- For larger species, tagging is used, using chips that mark the position to reconstruct movement.

- Other types of sensors can be linked to large nectonic organisms.

58
ADAPTATIONS OF ORGANISMS TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

In the course of evolution, organisms have evolved morpho-physiological adaptations related to the
ecological characteristics of the habitats in which they live.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is one of the most influential factors in organisms.

All species are adapted to a range of temperature tolerance, outside this range there is physiological
stress which can lead to death. In the picture below two curves have smaller ranges, a third includes
many variation values. The first two cases are of species with narrow tolerance ranges.

1. According to the width of these ranges the species are divided into two categories, Stenotherms
and Eurytherms.

The curve on the left is typical of a species

adapted to low T at a certain temperature.
There is the optimal temperature for which the
species grows optimally, as the temperature
increases further the curve decreases denoting a
shift towards less tolerated conditions and possible
stress.

a) Species with narrow temperature ranges

areStenothermic species.
Stenothermic species are not extremophilic,
they may be adapted to medium temperatures
but still have a narrow range.

In the abyssal depths most marine species are Stenotherms, because there are low T variations in these
areas. In a deep-water warming scenario, there would be very serious consequences because abyssal
species are adapted to very small temperature variations.

b) The second curve on the right belongs to a Stenotherm species but adapted to a narrow range of
highertemperatures.

c) These species are referred to as eurytherms.

The third and broad central curve includes a wide temperature range, and is of species that are
adapted to and have adverse temperature conditions.
These species are typical of areas with wide temperature ranges or that have a wide distribution in
latitude and depth.

59
 2. Organisms can also be divided according to their ability to regulate heat.

Homeothermy: species that are able to self-regulate their own T and keep it constant, even in a
different environment, are homeothermic species.
Due to the high metabolic index, the temperature is higher than in water
and they must defend themselves against continuous heat loss.
Adaptations for thermal insulation include:
- subcutaneous fat, plumage capable of retaining air at the base that
heats them with body heat,
- vasomotor regulation
- reduced skin circulation, heat development through swimming.

Pelicothermia: the body temperature tends to conform to that of the

external environment and vary with it (fish, reptiles, invertebrates).

There are, however, intermediate stages in which the body T does not
coincide with the environmental T (good swimming fish develop heat,
tidal organisms with evaporation).

Some fish have special structures of the circulatory system to keep the
heat around, representing a kind of homeothermy.
This structure is called the admirable network (depicted here), an
interweaving of veins and arteries in which blood flows in opposite
directions, resulting in internal heat exchange and thus heat retention.

ACCLIMATIZATION
Some metabolic mechanisms allow some organisms to acclimatise.
- Some species are able to tolerate different temperatures over
time while maintaining their physiological and metabolic
functions.

EXPERIMENT BIVALVES
In one experiment (graph opposite) some bivalves were moved to
temperatures higher than their range, some to lower temperatures,
and some remained in their optimum. At first, the bivalves in
warmer areas increased their oxygen consumption, while those in
colder areas experienced a decrease in their oxygen consumption.
Over time, however, after weeks, their values returned to the
consumption values of the thermal optimum zones. These bivalves
acclimatised to different T.

Changes in T can cause changes in the production of molecules.

- Arctic fish exposed to very low T can produce proteins that act as anti-freeze agents to prevent
solidification of internal fluids by lowering the freezing point of the plasma.

Tidal and intra-tidal species must be able to withstand considerable variations in T on the same day.

60
 BREATHING
CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF RESPIRATION:

1. RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS: There are various types of pigments (such as haemoglobins, haemeritrins
and haemocyanins)

2. RESPIRATORY ORGANS: Many species breathe through the integument, some through special
structures suchas siphons or gills.

- The respiratory index increases with temperature.

- In addition, marine organisms present adaptations to
possible oxygen depletion in the water.

SALINITY
Salinity is as variable as temperature,

1. According to the ranges

there are organisms that can withstand large ranges Euryhalines,

while those that live in narrow ranges Stenohalines.

- Euryhaline organisms can live in waters of varying salinity, may even be able to
to move from sea to freshwater and vice versa for their trophic and reproductive needs.
They haveosmoregulatory mechanisms which, within certain limits, allow them to adapt to changes in
salinity.

- Stenoalin organisms are only able to live in water with stable or varying salinity within a range of 10 to 10
%.
very narrow limits.
2. Depending on their ability to maintain or not maintain internal salt concentration, organisms are
divided into :
- Pecilosmotic: they maintain the internal salt concentration in equilibrium with that of the water and the
adjust to external variations.
- Homeosmotics: they maintain a constant internal salt concentration independently of the salt
Concentration
outside.

OSMOSIS
Osmosis is used to maintain internal salinity via cell membranes and the
skin.

In the graph opposite, in blue, as the external osmolarity increases, the

internal osmolarity is kept constant, so it is a homeosmotic species.

In red, as the external osmolarity increases, the internal osmolarity

increases, making it a pelicosmotic organism.

In green finally there is an intermediate situation, at low and high

salinity values they behave as pelicosmotic, while at medium variations
they maintain their salinity as homeosmotic.
61
SALTWATER ADAPTATION FISH
Saltwater is hypertonic with respect to the body, and if the fish's skin functioned as a permeable
membrane it would lose fluid through dehydration and die. Fish therefore have mechanisms to
counterbalance water loss. They take in a lot of water by replenishing fluids. They produce highly
concentrated urine. They eliminate salts from their gills.

FRESHWATER ADAPTATION FISH

In freshwater fish there is the opposite situation with a hypotonic external medium, so external water
would tend to enter the organism and swell it(hinchar).

- Freshwater organisms therefore: consume little water, make a lot of unconcentrated urine and try to
lose aslittle salt as possible.

Again, there is a response of the organisms

according to their optimum.
In an experiment shown here some nematodes
accustomed to constant salinity and nematodes
adapted to estuaries with variable salinity were
taken from their natural environments and placed
in seawater at salinity of 20. In both cases the
first response is to increase in weight to become
stable with the hypersaline environment.
However, over time they decrease in weight,
which is more rapid for estuarine nematodes
because they are more accustomed to salinity
changes, and they return more quickly to their
original weight.

62
 THE pH
pH is another important parameter, and in water it is generally of 8,1.

There are many studies to understand the effects of ocean acidification on organisms.

- Again, some organisms manage to maintain a constant internal pH through acid/base regulation, but
only for small variations.

- Other species cannot maintain a constant internal pH when the external pH changes due to
acidification. This may cause a decrease in growth performance and decline in populations.

SWIMMING
We have already talked about swimming in the necton.
- The shape of the body and fins can bring advantages in swimming. Depending on the fon, swimming or
certain types of swimming are favoured.

- In manoeuvring fish the pectoral fins are very large and strong to be able to turn quickly. Great
swimmers can keep warm and maintain a constant swim.

- Other fish are acceleration specialists able to increase their speed abruptly.

1. Swimming is divided into :

- periodic swimming : cyclic repetitions of thepropulsive movements, displacements long at constant
speed.
- temporary movements: that are jerky escape movements as for zooplankton that escape with jerky
movement.

63
FEEDING
Depending on the nature of the food, there may be different appendages, different behaviour, different
digestive systems (herbivores and carnivores).

1. The mechanisms for capturing food are manifold and in this respect three main categories of
organisms can be identified:
a) Microphages: they are suspensory, filtering or detritivorous.
b) Macrophages: they are chewers or shredders
c) Parasites: they take up fluids and tissues directly from the host in which they have settled.

a) Microphages - Suspenders and filterers

Many animals feed on organic particles consisting of detritus, bacteria and small planktonic organisms
(suspensors). Capture can take place :
- By incorporation by means of pseudopods as is the case with some protozoa
- By means of tentacles as in coelenterates
- By means of vibrating scourges and cilia that produce whirlpools and water currents that convey nutrients
towards the mouth opening
- Through cilia and mucus traps
In filter-feeding animals, food particles are retained by filtering apparatuses before being ingested (porifers,
tunicates, bryozoans, certain molluscs). The mechanisms for capturing small particles, which are often
very complex, vary in different groups of animals.

In Porifera the flagella of the coanocytes that cover the inner cavity(s) create a water current that
carries nutrients through numerous poi that defile the surface of the animal. The water exits to the
outside through the osculum. Food particles are retained and incorporated by the coanocytes.

Mollusc Lamellibranchs have a system of cilia on the inner wall of the plateal cavity that creates a
current of water through the inhaling siphon, passes through the gills and is expelled by the exhaling
siphon. The gills are strewn with mucous cilia that retain food particles. Another system of cilia conveys
the food to the mouth.
The sea date (Litophaga Litophaga) burrows into the rock with its shells and an acidic secretion and lives
in the hole produced by feeding on filtering mechanisms.

Among Crustacea, some flirt with food by means of the bristles on their locomotor, mouth and antennae
appendages, creating water currents with their movement.

In the ascidian tunicates the water passes through the mouth siphon and into the gill basket, which is
covered with a mucous veil. The endostyle, covered with ciliated and glandular cells, communicates with
the oesophagus.

b) Microphages –

i. Detritivores=feed on organic matter decomposed

Many bottom-dwelling organisms ingest food particles together with mud and sand or by agglutinating
them into mucous filaments.

In some polychaetes, the movement of the parapodia creates a current and the organisms are held by a
mucous layer and then conveyed to the mouth by a ciliated shower located on the dorsal surface of the
animal.

The gills of the mullet fish are equipped with special appendages that retain organic material when the
flow of mud passes through them.

64
 ii. Macrophages – Grazers=herbivorous

Some amphipods such as Caprella have appendages with webbed claws (pincers) with which they
detach and ingest organisms that adhere to algae and hydroids.

Gastropod molluscs possess radula, a muscular mass covered with curved, chitinous, renewable
denticles.

iii. Macrophages - Predators

Predatory organisms must first encounter prey, then identify it, recognise it as prey, decide whether to
capture it, and finally capture it. This process limits the possible prey from the total prey population.

Cnidarians(medusas) possess particular cells, the cnidoblasts, in which there are capsules
(nematocysts) consisting of a vesicle with a toxic liquid in which there is a stinging filament, which is
stimulated by a termination.

Some Polychaetes have a muscular, everted pharynx with which they catch small prey.

Some Decapod Crustaceans afferate their prey with claws and jaws and then chop it up with other
mouthparts.

Cephalopod molluscs are voracious predators; octopuses paralyse their prey with venom produced by
the second pair of salivary glands.

65
c) Parasites - Endoparasites and Ectoparasites
They feed at the expense of another animal by feeding on its blood and tissue.
i. Ectoparasites live outside the host,

- Typical ectoparasites are Isopods, which attach themselves to the gills of fish and feed on the flesh
of the host. They often camouflage themselves with the host.

ii. endoparasites live inside the body and often have degeneration or absence of the digestive
tract.
- Crustacean barnacles of the genus Sacculina are rhizocephalic endoparasites. The adult attaches itself
to the host by means of a peduncle from which branches invade the tissues.

OTHER INTERESTING FACTS:

Among the most parasitised fish is the frequent Mediterranean scabbardfish, but it is very
good to eat so fuck them parasytes, cook this fish well or blast it at low temperatures before
eating it.
Gastropod molluscs Entoconchidae take on a vermiform appearance as adults in relation to
parasitic life.

66
 EXCRETION

Excretion is another adaptation mechanism. There are several mechanisms for accumulating and
eliminating the waste products of cellular metabolism:
- The breakdown of fats and sugars produces mainly water and anhydride, which are eliminated by
respiration and transpiration.

- Vested substances such as proteins and nucleic acids are degraded into different end products
including ammonia, uric acid, urea and trimethylamine oxide.
- The elimination of nitrogenous catabolites occurs through the body surface and gills.
- Excretion also occurs through organs such as the nephritis and kidneys.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS -TYPE OF EXCRETION:

1. Ammoniotelic animals excrete ammonia, and are mainly invertebrates.

2. In uricotelic and ureotelic animals, the transformation of ammonia into uric acid and urea
respectively represents an adaptation of the animals to terrestrial conditions, and is typical
of animals living in tidal areas, such as gastropods.

- Some molluscs of the genus Melaraphe or Vittorine have changed their mode of excretion, producing
uric acid instead of ammonia. They are organisms of an inter-marine environment and so by producing
uric acid they are able to avoid wasting water by producing very dense uric acid.

- Bony fish tend to be ammonium-elicited, although many produce urea (freshwater fish) or
trimethylamine oxide (marine fish).

- Cartilaginous fishes of the Elasmobranch+ SEA TURTLES class are ureotelic,

BIOLUMINESCENCE
It is the main source of light in most ocean floor habitats.

- Bioluminescence has evolved several times in the sea, as evidenced by the numerous chemical
mechanisms by which light is emitted, and the large number of taxonomically distant organisms that
include bioluminescent species, such as bacteria, cnidarians, ctenophores, annelids, crustaceans,
molluscs and fish.

Bioluminescence can be used :

- for intra-species communication for reproductive purposes,
- as a defence system to avoid predators
- to capture prey.

67
 Light originates for :

1. Extra-cellular secretions of glands producing matrices at the basis of bioluminescence.

2. In photophores due to intracellular processes or the presence of symbiotic bacteria.
Photophores are masses of photogenic cells resting on a connective layer.
3. Via symbiotic bacteria

• Glandular cells on the body produce a luminous secretion when the animal is stimulated.
• Glandular cells around the mouth.
• Glandular cells on the tentacles.

68
 THE PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS
Some organisms of various taxa produce sounds.

These sounds have been studied in recent times using hydrophones, there are many marine sounds,
and anthropogenic noises can create noise pollution that disturb or alter the rhythms of marine organisms.
Large ships, submarines, drilling and other human activities disturb marine sounds.

One of the most studied sounds is that of the

snapping shrimp or pistol shrimp, which is related
to the movement of prey. Some of these shrimps
have asymmetrical appendages, a larger claw that
snaps, producing microscopic movements in the
water and thus noises similar to gunshots. These
"water shots" stun their prey by means of these
shock waves that can reach very high temperatures.

Mechanisms can be used to produce sounds:

1. Mechanical which are produced by the rubbing of hard body parts such as teeth, opercula or the
pectoral fins. The swim bladder, if present, acts as a sounding board.
2. Hydrodynamics which are caused by abrupt movements of the body during swimming and are
typical of the swimming species (tail movement)
3. bladder-natators obtained through its compression produced by contraction of
muscles to itconnected (Scienidae) produces sounds.

Sounds are perceived by a well-developed inner ear (in fish) and lateral line.

The production of sounds is periodic when:

- associated with behaviours such as searching for food and attracting the opposite sex,

Some organisms make sounds all year round:

- to defend territory.

o Often the acoustic signals affiintroduce a highly stereotyped behaviour that complements the
communication already expressed by sound, which may be body position, fins, colouration.

Sounds in the sea have different uses and purposes,

communicating, confusing prey.

69
 SOUND PRODUCTION OF CETACEANS
Cetaceans use complex sounds to communicate

Cetaceans differ between :

1- Odontocetes have tooth like dolphins
producing whistling sounds. Clicks at high
frequencies but short.
for echolocation and perceiving the external
- environment

2- While Mysticetes have beards instead of

teeth(whales)
make longer sounds at it frequency via the larynx.

Sounds are used for mating, giving alarm,

organisation during predation.

In the sea sound travels faster,

- increasing with temperature for constant salinity
values,
- speed increases with pressure.
- Sound travels very far at sea; whales can
communicate at distances of over a thousand
kilometres.

RECEPTION OF STIMULI
1. The complexity of photoreceptors varies in different organisms.

- The body surface of various organisms such as polychaetes and turbellarians is sensitive to light.

- Crustaceans and fish possess a dorsal surface sensitivity (photodorsal reflex) that serves

orientation.

- Some organisms have ocelli, dimples at the bottom of which is a photosensitive surface, sometimes
witha cornea and lens (jellyfish, turbellarians, polychaetes and molluscs).

- Cephalopods possess eyes with a perfect organisation (cornea, iris, crystalline lens, posterior chamber,
retina) enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule perforated to allow the fibres of the optic nerve to pass
through.

- Fish and cephalopods (living up to 1000 m) possess a telescopic eye, the lens of which concentrates all
weak light radiation on the narrow photosensitive portion and the animal can have a small, but bright
image.

- Marine organisms may possess stator organs that regulate balance.

70
2. Statoreceptors
Animals react to the force of gravity by means of statocysts, closed cavities or cavities communicating
with the outside world, which contain statoliths that stimulate the sensory cells lining the cavity by
gravity.
The animal's movements move the statoliths, this stimulates the sensory cells and the animal adjusts its
position until the statoliths have returned to their original position.

3. Sound waves travelling through water can be picked up by some animals through organs
phonoreceptors.

Fish can pick up such sound waves and low-frequency vibrations through the inner ear.
The organs of the lateral line are superficial canals located on the head and laterally along the body. In
the canals, which open outwards with a series of pores, are located sensory cells at the base of which
nerve fibres of the lateral nerves form a basket of branches.

Ampullae of Lorenzini on the head of Elasmobranchs sense very weak electrical fields such as those
generated by the hearts of other organisms.

4. As far as the chemioreceptor organs are concerned, they are divided into gustatory receptors which
aresensitive to highly concentrated substances (food contact) and olfactory receptors which are more
sensitive.

- Coelenterates have chemioreceptors on their tentacles and in the oral region, which are sensitive to
chemical stimuli from substances on which they feed.

- In polychaetes, chemical sensitivity is localised on the palpi.

- Gastropod molluscs have oesphradii, dimples with epithelium rich in neurosensory elements.

- Decapod crustaceans have receptors scattered on the surface of the body, on the antennules and in the
mouth.

- In fish, the olfactory cells are located in the nasal passages, while the gustatory and tactile cells are located
inthe mouth cavity, on the fins, on the lips and on the surface of the body.

Selachians and bony fish have organs for producing electricity that are controlled by the nervous system. In
torpedoes, these organs consist of striated muscles transformed into overlapping plates separated from
each other by connective tissue.
The nerve ending on one side of each plate causes it to take on an electronegative charge, while the
opposite side takes on an electropositive charge.

SUPPORT AND PROTECTION STRUCTURES

- Many organisms have exoskeletons to provide body support and protection.

- Many sessile organisms possess shells or produce limestone tubes to defend themselves from
predators as they are unable to escape.

- Finally, echinoderms (dermaskeleton) and vertebrates (endoskeleton) have internal skeletons to support
their bodies and protect their internal organs.

71
72
 Main marine ecosystems: rocky intertidal and subtidal, beaches, transitional
environments, bioconstructions, pelagic environment, deep sea

SANDY COASTS
Beaches are complex systems divided
Into 4 zones:
1. The surf area or subtidal zone, i.e.
the always submerged area
2. The intertidal beach, the area between
high and lowlow tide
3. The emerged beach
4. The dunes
These 4 portions represent a continuum, and are zones that influence each other. All 4 zones must be in
good condition for each other to function. The sandy coasts have been studied for less time than the
rocky intertidal environments because the communities here are less evident and accessible.

IMPORTANCE:
- they act as barriers against coastal erosion,
- habitats or nurseries for many animals (birds, fish, invertebrates, turtles),
- the presence of efficient detritus food chains,
- bathing use.

The beach profile is not stable but is subject to

meteorological and marine variations, swells and
storms affect them, there are often seasonal
variations as these weather phenomena decrease or
increase.
In the winter period the profile is more undulating,
due to the greater energy of the waves that pull
more sediment in.
The summer profile is more homogeneous, often
creating flat structures called berms.

THE SURF-ZONE
It is an area of shallow water running from the coastline to the outermost breakers, where there is high
kinetic energy from the breaking waves. So there are organisms that can tolerate these high energies.

The distance of the breakers from the coastline depends on the conditions of the seabed, the
waves form as the depth decreases, the further away the waves form the less energy reaches
the coast, the closer the breakers are to the coastline the greater the energy.

It is an area of great interest in the study of energy flows as it represents the stretch of sea where
hydrodynamic phenomena reach their greatest complexity.
In this part of the sea, sediments are transported and stirred up by coastal currents.
Wave action allows the continuous circulation of energy, influencing specific diversity, biomass and
community structure.

73
CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDY COASTS/classification of sand
One of the most basic characteristics of beaches is the size of the beach particles and their origin.
Beaches may be imposed by coarse pebbles, sand or muddy sand (estuaries).
The origin distinguishes sands into :
1. Carbonates derived from the skeletons of marine organisms (common in tropical areas
and near reefs).coral),
2. Quartzes or silicates are more or less coarse and result from the erosion of rocks on the
land or
of the reefs, the transport of materials in the rivers which are then transferred to the coasts through
the currents running through the courses.

74
 The size of the sand particles gives
different characteristics to the sand, and
it responds differently to water.
- In coarse substrates, water passes
quickly through the sand, oxygenating
the substrate.
- In fine sand, the water flow is slow.
- In poorly sorted sand, and therefore
with very variable dimensions, the
water crosses with difficulty as the
interstitial spaces are very small and
block the drainage of water.

The speed of water drainage is

important because water oxygenates,
carries organic matter and thus affects
organisms. Sediments that drain a lot
are unattractive to detritivorous
organisms.

TYPES OF BEACH

There are two types of beach according to the characteristics of the seabed, which will be accentuated
by the motion of the waves:
1. Dissipative: waves break in the sandy, shallow subtidal zone, thus at a distance from
the coastline.
Wave energy is slowly dissipated on the sandy flats at a great distance from the coast, allowing the
accumulation of organic matter and micro-organisms. These are beaches with fine sand (the waves are unable to
push away small particles) and very productive ecosystems because of their high capacity to store organic
matter and oxygen. Softly sloping bottoms and low profiles, few when the wave impacts do not particularly
modify the profile.
2. Reflective: breakers form on the shoreline, causing waves to discharge energy
directly on the shoreline. The sands here are coarse because high-energy breakers remove the smallest
particles, which results in a low capacity to retain organic matter, and despite the high oxygenation
they are ecosystems with few species. Deep bottoms and high profiles, due to the high energy of the
waves eroding the beach and increasing its slope.

75
 3. Often beaches are not at these two extremes but are intermediate between the
two, with dissipatedpattern profiles at a distance from the coast and reflective
pattern profiles close to the coast.

Waves have an effect on the emerged beach. They bring water that by gravity returns to the surface and
through sediment filtration then returns to the offshore.

76
CURRENTS

Coastal currents along the coast are parallel to the coast and are generated by waves oblique to the coast.
One of their effects is to distribute sediment along the coast.

These currents are associated with perpendicular currents known as Rip Currents, which increase the
depth of the seabed by means of erosion, sometimes digging real concave channels towards the coast in
which they move. The function of these currents is to return to the sea the water that the currents along
the coast tend to accumulate. If the suction currents are strong enough, they export sand from the
beach to the edge of the plateau. Littoral circulation cells are thus formed. These suction currents can
be dangerous for bathers because they can drag them away from the coast.

77
 THE SANDY COASTLINE
It is the closest environment to the mainland, habited by terrestrial organisms and sand plants.
FLORA:
The flora is peculiar, they are psammophytic organisms with adaptations to live on a mobile substrate, in
fact they have complex root systems to anchor themselves and play the role of a stabiliser.
- The plants grow horizontally rather than vertically, due to the strong winds and swells that could
damage them if they were too tall.
- They must be tolerant plants with a high salt content due to the presence of aerosols, and are
therefore very capable of absorbing water thanks to the depth of their roots to search for water.
- With their roots the plants stabilise the dunes making them more solid.

ANIMALS:
The animals are mainly terrestrial, many crustaceans, insects, birds. When the tide brings in organic
material, organisms from the land.

OTHER ECOSYSTEMS ASSOCIATED

In some areas, several adjacent ecosystems of great value are formed.

On the opposite side of the sea, salt marsh systems and lagoons can form in the dune area.
The maintenance of these multiple ecosystems is necessary for the balance of the coastal system.
Destroying a lagoon could have negative effects on the beach.

THE FURTHER AWAY FROM THE COST:

- the less intense the marine aerosol and exposure to wind and salt.
- the more intense the soil and nutrient-rich soil will be.
- the less the infiltration of brackish water into the aquifers.
At varying distances from the coast therefore different species will be placed according to their balances
and tolerances.

FACTS :
- The Sardinian coastline is one of the most interesting for its low level of anthropisation, high dunes and
dense vegetation. Real undisturbed sabbath hills are formed.
- The south Sicilian coast used to have very beautiful dune systems, now unfortunately altered by man due
to the construction of greenhouses for intensive cultivation.

ORGANISMS OF THE SANDY COAST CLASSIFICATION

Sopralittoral : Here we find small crustaceans, such as sea fleas or isopods.

Mesolittoral: fossorial organisms such as polychaetes, molluscs and crabs are present. At low tide, they
burrow down in search of moisture. These tunnels are deeper the coarser the sand is as it drains deeper.

Infralittoral: there are fossorial organisms, which create burrows and tunnels to escape predators. There
are some phanerogamous marine plants with roots anchored in the substrate. We see algae mainly in the
hard substrates to which they adhere. Here bivalves prevail, living inside the sediment where they
flourish to absorb water and look for organic particles. Ophirids and polychaetes are also present.

The primary producers of these environments are both plants and diatoms, which live on the
sediment orother organisms.

Excavators(fossori) produce tunnels depending on the species and where they colonise. Fossori
in the intertidal produce deeper tunnels than those in the subtidal, because they have to resist
drying out at low tide. Subtidal ditches only need to resist the current, so they dig shallower
tunnels(menos profundo).

78
Beaches are spawning grounds for sea turtles; in spring
they lay their eggs, which hatch after about two
months. Nowadays, the spawning areas are cordoned off
and protected by humans. When they hatch, the
hatchlings have to run towards the beach because they
are easy prey for land predators.

Beaches are areas characterised by the accumulation of

detritus and organic matter (e.g. posidonia on our
coasts).

The coastline is an ecologically important area because

it interconnects terrestrial and marine environments.

Birds and marine mammals approach at low tide to feed on the debris deposits.

79
80
 SANDY COAST
WHAT WE FOUND IN THE BEACH
Not only do we find accumulations of algae and plants on the beaches, but near the mouths of the
beaches we find land organic matter such as trunks, or beached marine organisms such as velelles that
come ashore in spring. Unfortunately, it is very diffuseful to find accumulations of rubbish, waste of various
kinds that accumulate on the beaches. This rubbish comes from the land but also from the sea itself,
which brings it onto the beaches in storm surges. Famous are the plastic islands, areas where currents
concentrate floating plastic waste. Plastics can be ingested by marine organisms, but are also associated
with the release of pollutants.

COASTAL EROSION-PROBLEM
Another problem affecting beaches is coastal erosion. A phenomenon that affects all continents, it is a
problem with a fast dynamic, many beaches are lost in a few years.
Many Italian beaches are subject to erosion, only the rocky areas are spared.

Beaches are in balance between inputs and outputs. Beach sand is a dynamic element that can be added
or removed, the main inputs of material to beaches are rivers and the marine hydrodynamics of currents
that can move the material.
Outputs are characterised by meteo-marine forcings such as wind or precipitation that can remove sand.
Nowadays, outputs are increasing and inputs are decreasing, due to the construction of dams blocking
rivers, or climate change displacing normal rainfall.
- Urbanisation of the coastline, degradation ofPosidonia beds (often soffocated by beach nourishment),
reforestation of export areas and sand extraction from rivers also cause imbalance.

Natural physical barriers such as plant-supported dunes, underwater seagrass beds and coral reefs once
protected the coastline from erosion, but with human action these protections are missing, and the
hydrodynamic action of the sea cannot be mitigated.
The removal of beached vegetation or clusters of shells or other organisms from the coast also has the
same effect as the removal of coastal protection.

Boulders and other artificial structures placed by man along the coasts have the function of replacing the
original natural barriers.
Only recreating natural defences can bring beaches back into balance, all other engineering solutions
will never be as effiective: groins, jetties, barriers and beach nourishment (importing sand from outside
onto eroded beaches) will not save us.

ARTIFICIAL BARRIERS:
Groins are stone structures placed perpendicular to the
coastline, which serve to absorb the impact of currents
along thecoast.
- As well as being aesthetically unsightly, they have a negative
impact on marine communities, because placing blocks of hard
substrate on soft substrate alters the ecosystems present.
- - They are also not very efficacious structures because on one
side (the side from which the longshore current comes) a new
zone of accretion will form but on the opposite side an erosion
zone will form.

Parallel barriers are structures placed parallel to the

coastline but in the water, they serve to absorb the
violence of the waves. The area behind the barrier will
be protected from the waves and will grow, but the areas
to its right and left will be eroded. Another fake solution
in short.

81
In Bali over the years an airport runway was 80built that ended in the sea. The construction of this
runway caused an accretion process on one side and an erosion process on the opposite side which
caused damage to the buildings nearby. To avoid this mess ... it was enough to avoid building on the
coast.

On the Italian Adriatic coast, parallel breakwater barriers are common, to "protect" the beach from erosion.
Underwater barriers called soffolte barriers that do not protrude into the air are also used to achieve the
same result. In the image opposite we see the results of these strategies.

Building harbours also has an impact. The construction of artificially semi-enclosed areas leads to the
formation of the usual zones of sedimentation and erosion due to the unbalanced currents.

Below we see (from left to right): the Adriatic coast, a diagram of a port and the airport in Bali.

Modern breakwaters try to reproduce new substrates for the colonisation of complex benthonic
communities, proposing structures with holes and crevices to act as burrows for various types of
organisms.

ECOLOGICAL ROLE OF THE BEACH AND CAUSES OF ALTERATION

The beach is an important ecosystem representing an area of great diversity, areas where juveniles of
various species are concentrated (nursery area). Beaches mitigate and dissipate wave energy, protecting
the coastline, they act as a habitat for many birds, fish, invertebrates and turtles, they stabilise the
sediment by reducing coastal erosion... and, of course, they are also used for bathing, so they are also of
great economic value.
Like all coastal ecosystems there are many sources of anthropogenic alteration:
1. Waste accumulates for hinterland activities
2. Exploited for natural resources
3. Aquaculture
4. Recreational activities
5. Navigation
6. Etc.

Increasing frequency of beach-damaging events such as storm surges, storms and tornadoes put these
ecosystems at serious risk. Rising sea levels also threaten to submerge and destroy them. Flooding of
coastal areas will be most notable in already low-lying areas such as estuaries, and where there are
rivers there are cities....

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TRANSITION AREAS DEFINITIONS
In marine biology, they are a broad category of systems, generally speaking areas where freshwater
meets saltwater, i.e. estuaries, lakes, ponds, marshes, bays. First we define the characteristics of these
areas.

1. Estuarine estuary: estuaries are places where rivers join the sea and are subject to the influence ofthe
tides, forming a transition zone between fresh river water and salt sea water where they mix.
2. Delta mouth: the sum of several estuarine branches forms the delta. It is an area of strong deposition.
3. Baia : is a coastal inlet which, at the difference of the gulf, has a narrow entrance from the sea, which
then becomes narrower.
is widening as it penetrates inland.
4. Lagoon: is a stretch of water along the coast or a coastal basin into which both water and watercourses
enter.
marine and continental, dominated by the tides, separated from the sea by a coastal strip, but
communicating with it through inlets.
5. Pond : is a coastal stretch of water, separated from the sea by a littoral cordon, but which can
communicating with it through inlets or narrow channels that are more or less long and winding,
characterised by shallow waters and seasonally variable contours. Here communication with the sea is
less efficient than in the lagoons. Communication between ponds and lagoons is through narrow
channels, so there is little water exchange.
6. Coastal lakes: these are expanses of brackish water, well delimited, rather extensive and deep, which
can
communicate with the sea through permanent or temporary inlets.
7. Pantano : is a shallow coastal pond which in the summer months can be totally
drained.drying.
8. Marshes: these are coastal depressions subject to various inputs of water, fresh, sea and meteoric. They
go
seasonal flooding and drying.
9. Salt marshes: these are a group of ponds of different sizes and depths created by man in
pre-existing transition zones (such as ponds, marshes and swamps) which receive sea water that
evaporates due to the precipitation of salts. Ponds furthest from the sea have typical characteristics.

83
ESTUARIES AND DELTAS
They are geologically very remarkable and biologically rich transition areas. - This wealth in terms of
primary production is common among all transition areas.

Estuaries are the areas where rivers meet the sea and are subject to the influence of the tides,
forminga transition zone between river waters and marine salt waters.
Several estuarine branches together form a delta mouth.

Estuaries are not sites of high material deposition, either because the sea disperses them or because the
flow rate is not high enough to transport material. In deltas, on the other hand, there is high deposition,
forming typical structures that extend out to sea. The sea often transports this debris by means of
currents, especially longshore currents that carry material along the coast. However, if there is little marine
action there will be a prevalence of sedimentation.

Each estuary is constructed from 3 portions:

1. The plain: a flat area higher than sea level
characterised by the presence of canals, lakes and
ponds. This area floods during heavy rainfall. It is a
muddy area that can be subject to the influence of
the watercourse during floods, but can also be
affected by tides. The vegetation of the plains is
typical of lake areas, often halophilous plants
adapted to saline environments (marine influence)
called "salt marsh".
2. The front: the area where there is an encounter with the sea, and
increases in slope and depth. It is a submerged area
that forms part of the coastline.
3. The prodelta: the deepest area where the
sedimentation, in a system where there is little sea
action this is where the main sedimentation occurs
and the estuary will tend to move towards the sea.

Some characteristics of estuaries are related to the circulation of fresh and salt water and
sedimentation.
The less dense fresh waters will be distributed according to their density, the less dense fresh waters
will stay on the surface while the salty waters, which do not mix, will flow below them. This very
stratified circulation is called estuarine, but it is not the only type of circulation possible.
The high sedimentation causes fine material to be deposited in these areas, forming very fertile plains
where plants proliferate.

In estuarine circulation the two flows do

not usually mix, except in a few cases.
The circulation depends on the amount
of freshwater input; under conditions of
large amounts of freshwater and calm
seas stratification will form. Under
conditions of low freshwater input, wind
and strong swell the waters may mix with
each other.
Between these two extremes there will
be many intermediate conditions. In
winter with high precipitation there will
be low stratification, in summer with low
precipitation there will be mixing
conditions.

84
When the river is exporting material to the sea, spots will form that
will not be central but will be to the right or left. This is caused by
the Coriolis force which directs the flow of sediment to the right in
the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
Delta structures are influenced by various factors:
1. When the river has a high sediment input, the following will form
elongated structure often typed (hand-shaped)
2. In the case where the mouths are dominated by waves we will have more delta
curved. Although the river carries a lot of material, the action of
the sea prevents the formation of digitate forms.
3. When deltas are in tidal areas they will tend to
be estuarine. The tides are such that they create furrows in the
structure creating complex channel structures.

85
FLORA AND FAUNA
Ponds and rivers are very productive areas because of their high nutrient supply and retention capacity.

The plants of estuarine environments are adapted to sedimentary conditions.

- In warm areas we will find mangroves, plants with high thermal demands,

- in temperate zones we will find salt marsh plants.

- Areas where the seabed is soft marine plants adapted to brackish conditions but only in areas
where the water is transparent enough for photosynthesis.

- We will find few macro-algae because they are typical of hard substrates, and we will find green
algae such as Ulvaceae.

- Phytoplankton will also be present in areas where upwelling and continental inputs are common.
Micro- phyto-benthos (diatoms) often form a film on the surface of substrates.
The distinction between salt marsh (with plants attached) and mangrove swamps is the major distinction
that divides marshes into two variants. As we see in the picture below, they are distributed according to
latitude and thus according to temperature.

Consumers are abundant, especially the benthonic species, which are able to adapt to these particular
environments, due to the variations in salinity and temperature, and the high hydrodynamics. These
areas are often used as nursery areas for many species, especially in areas with low hydrodynamics, so
the larvae are not dispersed and find plenty of nourishment. Avifauna (birds) are diverse and abundant,
due to the great possibility of feeding on fish and invertebrates in these areas.

How do organisms adapt to these variable conditions?

Some are osmoconformist organisms that regulate their internal salinity with external salinity, while
others are osmmoregulators that maintain their salinity despite changes in external salinity. Polychaete
annelids are perfect osmoconformists, while eels and salmon (migratory species) are perfect
osmoregulators.

86
Salinity varies between the water column and the sediment. While the salinity of the water column is
very unstable, the salinity of the sediment is much more stable.

During high tide there will be a lot of

seawater in the water column and therefore
high salinity. In the first few cm of sediment
the salinity will be heterogeneous with the
water, but as you go deeper the salinity
decreases rapidly.

During low tide, the water column. It will be

lower, there will be less salt water and
therefore much lower salinity. In the
sediment, the first few cm will be salty as
water again, but shortly afterwards the
salinity will increase.

Organisms that are less tolerant of salinity

variability will then simply burrow or tunnel
into the sediment. In fact, even at shallow
depths, the sediment will keep its salinity
almost constant without being influenced by
the tide.

ALTERATION OF ESTUARIES AND DELTAS

Causes of alteration of estuaries and deltas can be :
1. Deforestation causing soil erosion, runoff will bring more sediment than normal
2. Changes in the hydrological cycle
3. Changes in land use
4. Urbanisation
5. Agricultural and industrial activities
6. Construction of structures that alter land-sea connections
7. Dams reducing the amlow of water and sediment to rivers
8. Navigation
9. Climate change, changes in T and pH may harm flora and fauna
10. Changes in sea level, which could overtop estuaries and submerge them

In the past, estuarine and marshy areas were often considered unhealthy and were reclaimed to make
them suitable for building. Many areas have therefore disappeared (30% of the world's marshlands have
been lost for these reasons), and it is only in recent decades that these areas have been recognised for
their ecological importance.

87
SALT MARSHES

Another transitional environment that forms around estuaries is the salt marsh. This habitat, along with
the other salt marsh environments, is characterised by halophytic plants(tolerant to salt) that vary according
to latitude. Salt marsh plants.
Intertidal communities of temperate zones typical of sheltered environments characterised by fine
sediment accumulation are present in these areas. Salt marshes are abundant in estuarine and lagoon
areas and in environments with inlets and drainage channels.

These areas are characterised by landscapes with low levels or depressions where there are brackish
water channels, which characterise the transition zones.

In the picture below in black are coastlines with salt marsh and in red the mangroves. The geographical
location is given by adaptation to the temperature of the various plants, the salt marsh (herbaceous
plants) being used to more temperate or rigid climates, while the mangroves live in high temperatures.

This type of habitat is very diffuseful, for example on the west coast of the USA. They are habitats partly
lost due to reclamation by deposition of sediment to obtain arable land.
Here the terrestrial vegetation is rich, it can live in partially submerged conditions, the avifauna is rich and
there is a rich production for both terrestrial plants and aquatic producers such as affiorant algae and
plankton.

88
Mediterranean salt marshes are characterised by a muddy and silty substrate, rich in water. It is an
ideal substrate for a few plants, such as glasswort, which are resistant to this soft substrate and salinity.
The waters are turbid because they are rich in suspended material, plankton and detritus.

The plant species are the most characteristic of these areas.

1. Plants such as Spartina Alterniflora (living between mean sea level and high tide zone),
Juncus, Salicornia and Distichilis Spicata (in the upper zone) are typical of the Atlantic coasts of the
United States.
2. Spartina Anglica and S. Townsendii are typical of the southern coasts of England.
3. In the Mediterranean the dominant species are those of the genera Juncus, Salicornia and Limonium.

These marshy plains present heterogeneity in their structure, due to the presence of more or less deep
channels, and this generates a very articulated profile of the seabed. In the picture on the left is the
sea, on the right the hinterland. Taking a transverse view, we find areas where sediments accumulate
and rise, more or less deep channels, small depressions where salt deposits form.

89
TIDAL VARIABILITY
Added to this variability of the profile is the variability of tidal flows. At high tide there will be flooding,
at low tide there will be emersion. Shallow channels experience periodic emersion, and therefore
organisms capable of tolerating emersion will live there, while channels that are always flooded will have
more aquatic organisms.

The further you get from the sea, the

less influence it has. The tides will be
felt less and less, only the extreme
ones will change the environment.
- An environmental gradient will be
created that will lead to different
environmental conditions and
thus to different colonisation of
species.
- On the marine side there will be
species strongly adapted to the
marine influence, while moving away
from the sea there will be more
extreme conditions which are only
influenced by high tides and will
therefore be strongly saline as the
water here stagnates more.

We can therefore distinguish :

- a low marsh which is flooded twice a day bythe tide,
- a high marsh which is flooded seasonally by extreme tides or storms,
- the marsh border which forms the boundary between marsh and land only environments.

Different populations with different characteristics and adaptations will establish in the different
areas.

- When we reach the limit of extreme high tide we will find purely terrestrial plants and animals.

90
 Generally, the older, more mature communities are found in
the low marsh area, while the younger, less structured
communities are found in the high marsh area. As the sea level
rises, the low marsh is lost and flooded. So the innermost areas
are newer because they are newly formed marshlands.
The speed of climate change and sea level rise will not give
time for plants to adapt and establish themselves in higher
areas.

PLANT ADAPTATIONS
The plants will have stems and roots immersed in mud. These soils are often made up of small particle
sizes and are poorly drained, so they are poorly oxygenated at depth.

1. The plants must therefore adapt to low oxygenation at depth.

- Thay have AERIAL TISSUES

- The plant tissues are hollow and therefore rich in air, in fact
up to 60% of lake plants are occupied by air, which is
oxygen. The air is supplied by the leaves and manages to
reach the roots of the plant by oxygenating them.
- Plants exposed to more oxygenated soils (sea front) are less
rich in aerial tissue, which is the reverse in less oxygenated
soils.

2. must withstand the high salinity caused by alternating

high and low tides.

- must therefore get used to absorbing water from very salty soil.

- mechanism allows the salts to be removed salt glands in the leaf epidermis.
In conditions of externalhyper salinity water would tend to escape from the plants:
- plants increase their internal salinity by accumulating nitrogenous substances within themselves.
- they balance external and internal salinity and avoid dehydration

Nitrogen:
- main elements of many nutrients, which the plant uses to form proteins and nucleic acids.
- plant's nitrogen must be used for survival and not for growth.
- The higher the salinity, the lower the biomass of the plants, or the slower their growth.

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PRIMARY PRODUCTION
In these environments there is high production, water rich in organic matter produced by aquatic plants
such as Ruppia Maritima typical of transitional environments. We find diatoms and unicellular algae that
live on other plants or on boulders, even in the
clayey soils. At low tide, greenish muddy soils
emerge due to the high presence of diatoms.

Where plants settle they compact the

sediment,
where plants do not settle the soil
remains soft.

As salinity increases the biomass

decreases, but the number of leaf fascicles
increases, but they are smaller with less surface
area.
In general, production is higher in plants subject
to daily flooding, due to higher nutrient inputs
and lower salinity.
Furthermore, biomass production is influenced
by nutrient concentration and soil aeration.

92
Looking at the balance between production input and output processes
we see that there is a high production of which part is used by the
organisms in the marsh, while the other half is exported by the tides to
the sea and other adjacent areas, in the form of detritus and dead
matter (this process is called out-welling).
These sea areas and other transitional areas close to the marsh will also
be very productive due tothe high presence of organic matter.

CONSUMERS
With high productivity there will consequently
be high consumption.

There are both lacustrine organisms and

organisms attracted by high tide. Terrestrial
animals also approach these areas at low tide.
Filtering invertebrates, crabs and birds are the
most common. In the muddy areas there are
fossorial organisms, and in the permanently
submerged areas there are small fish that
find shelter from large predators. At the base
of the plants, between the stems and the
roots, there are often bivalves and other
filter feeders that use these areas to live
under cover and feast on the organic material
that passes by.

There are few herbivores (insects) and many detritivores, because the plants have evolved defence
mechanisms against herbivores and because they have a low nutritional value. In fact, only 10% of
vascular plants enter the grazing chain.

In the large salt marshes in the USA, huge beds of filter-feeding bivalves (mussel beds in particular) form on
the bottom of the marsh and between the plant dossiers, stabilising the substrate.
Crab species are bio-engineers because of their habit of burrowing into the sediment. In this way the soil
is disturbed, enriched with organic substances (mucous substances of the crab) while the substrate is
oxygenated thanks to the burrows.
Both resident and migratory species belong to the lake avifauna.

93
TROPHIC NETWORKS
Take a look at these two pngs, see for yourself.

ECOLOGICAL ROLES AND ALTERATION FACTORS

Marshes play an important role in the
1. Export during calm tide of high amounts of organic detritus that supports species
fish and invertebrates in coastal marine waters. The movement of animals as a vehicle for food is also
important.
2. Nursery areas, within the canals and ponds we find juvenile fish and invertebrates, also of economic
interest.
3. Stopping areas for birdlife (birds export organic matter to other environments, e.g. from the
Atlantic coasts of the USA to the Arctic area).
4. Protect the coastline from wave motion
5. Buffer ecosystem between the land and the sea that prevents erosion.
6. Accumulation of contaminants and heavy metals of continental origin ( ecological filters ) limiting their
spills in marine areas.
7. Protection of the coast against wave motion.
8. Accumulation of contaminants and heavy metals of continental origin (ecological filters).
9. Carbon sink. Photosynthetic plants use CO2 to
produce sugars and organic matter. With their presence they increase sedimentation processes, as
they act as barriers to the tides, slowing them down and allowing the detritus and sediment they carry
to settle. They are also enriched with carbonaceous organic matter, both due to the presence of roots
and the dead matter that settles along with the inorganic matter. This compartment is highly stable,
and so carbon (including atmospheric carbon) remains here for a long time. This is why there is a great
positive reappraisal of these areas as natural protections from atmospheric climate change ( NBS or
Nature Based Solution ). Efforts are often made to restore these often degraded environments.
The main causes of alteration are :
1. urban development (filling of these systems or alteration of tidal flows) so that we have lost the
30% of global salt marsh.
2. Aquaculture.
3. Mosquito control, drying out of intertidal areas and
of drainage channels; use of insecticides.
4. Climate change, and rising seas threaten to submerge the salt marsh, without giving the
time for populations to retreat.

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MANGROVE SWAMPS
These marshes are formed by woody
tree or bushy plants, namely
mangroves, which form forests in the
intertidal zone.
These plants are typical of tropical
environments along sheltered
coastlines, there are about 60 species in
South-East Asia and about in the
American 10continent. They are present
along the coast but also in inland
estuaries (they have a high tolerance to
salinity).
The ecosystems that form these plants
have a high biological diversity: insects
and birds in the aerial part, crabs,
sedentary molluscs, fish and vagile
crustaceans in the aquatic part.

MANGROVES: CHARACTERISTICS AND ADAPTATIONS

Mangroves are restricted to the tropical and sub-tropical belts where the minimum temperature is 20°C.
The greatest biodiversity in these habitats is in Indonesia. They possess a complex stilted root system,
both in terms of biomass and structure. Their fruits possess an elongated protuberance, which when they
fall can float upright allowing them to colonise the substrate.

The roots of mangroves play the role of anchorage in the vigorous medium exposed to currents, they
allow the absorption of nutrients. Their root system is one of their most characteristic features and in
general can be of two types:
1. Aerial roots rising from the ground
upwards or pneumatophores (pencil or
spike roots). Through the
pneumatophores they can absorb and
transport air towards the hypogeal areas
that are not exposed to the air. This type
of root emerges mainly during low tide
and is therefore typical of areas with less
frequent flooding (sediment with little
oxygenation or anoxic).
2. Arcuate roots (stilt roots)
that emerge from the trunk and form a
tangle where many organisms are
present. They mitigate wave action.
These types of roots are always emerged
and are therefore typical of mangroves in
permanently flooded areas.

The soils in these areas are, guess what, particularly salty. To overcome dehydration, the mangroves
have high concentrations of compounds within them that increase osmotic tissue pressure, allowing
water to be absorbed from saline soil.
To avoid absorbing too much sodium chloride, mangroves have developed two strategies that divide
them into two groups:
those that remove excess salt and those that avoid absorbing too much in the firstplace:
1. Salt Excreters which have glands that remove salt by expelling it from the leaves. The most
old are those in which the most salt accumulates so that when they fall, the salt is also dispersed.
2. Salt Excluders that effect salt uptake through selective root uptake.

95
Regarding the low oxygenation of the soil, the aerial roots (which have holes called lenticels) and
pneumatophores absorb oxygen from the air and transfer it through special channels to the lower portion
of the root system where conditions are anoxic.

ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
There is zonation in these areas, as we move away from the sea there will be species suitable for less
salty conditions in general but for possible extreme situations.
Various species of mangroves alternate moving from the coastal area adjacent to the sea towards the
more inland areas.
Zoning is primarily a response to external physical factors in addition to interspecific competition and
propagule dispersal. This action depends on the frequency of flooding and therefore on adaptation to
this environmental variable. Mangroves are halophilic, but as they are not good competitors, their
tolerance of high salinity to tidal excursion reduces competition with other terrestrial and freshwater
higher plants.

The innermost portion ( landward ) are more terrestrial

areas but with soil that is always damp and brackish. Taller
mangroves and other tree plants grow here. The plants in
these areas have simpler root systems because they do not
have to withstand the currents and super-soft soil.

Mangrove forests possess many characteristics similar to the

salt marshes of high latitudes. For example, mangroves
store carbon as they grow. Even the biomass production of
mangroves (black dots opposite) is greater than that of salt
marsh plants (white squares), so their contribution to
removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is even greater.

Like the salt marshes, mangrove forests also experience migrations (permanent or temporary) of various
fish species. The accessibility of these mangrove ecosystems is related to the tidal range and the
geomorphological characteristics of the area.

96
In these tropical mangrove areas there are often offshore seagrass beds, coral reefs and other marine
ecosystems. Due to the out-welling phenomena already mentioned, these two ecosystems support and
help each other with exports and imports (of juveniles or fry and nutrients). Destroying or damaging one
would mean damaging the other.

Consumers are many bio-engineered crabs (with asymmetrical claws), small crustaceans, small fish,
decomposer micro-organisms.
These are excellent fishing areas, where special nets are used.
Among the most unusual animals are the archer fish, the mud skipper, which can breathe through its
skin, use its legs as a kind of leg and stay out of the water for a while.

Trophic networks here are mainly based on detritus. In these areas the soil is poorly oxygenated and
therefore the processes of composition are very slow. The detritus that is produced here is present in
large quantities, and is used as the basis of the trophic chain (especially mangrove leaves and branches).
Detritus that is not used for feeding is sedimented, and since it does not decompose in the soil, it stores
large amounts of carbon.

Ah regà, these mangrove swamps have literally the same characteristics as the salt marsh, only here
there are mangroves and it's warm. There's a salinity gradient, they're productive areas, the roots act as
a refuge and nursery (although here the crazy mangrove roots exaggerate this factor), they're subject to
degradation due to human action (even here we've lost 30%), blablabla

97
ROLE OF MANGROVES AND CAUSES OF ALTERATION

The roles of these ecosystems include :

1. Structuring habitats of many terrestrial and aquatic species.
2. Production of a high quantity of organic matter that is used on site but also exported.
3. Nursery (especially for crustaceans) breeding and feeding area for many species also
commercial.
4. Improvements in water quality through filtration of sediments and pollutants.
5. Soil stabilisation and coastal protection from storm surges, including tsunamis
6. Mitigation of global warming effects by CO2 sequestration and storage.

And now the list of causes of alteration, yay, I wonder

what they will be :
1. Intensive use of natural resources (wood, species, etc.).
animals).
2. Urbanisation.
3. Change in river flow.
4. Aquaculture.
5. Agriculture.
6. Pollution.
7. Climate change.
This time too it is our fault, yay.

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 UNDERWATER SEAGRASS BEDS

So far we have analysed systems in the intertidal belt. Now we are talking about plants with flowers and
fruits, plants that can be distinguished by their leaves, stems and roots, that live completely submerged
in a saline medium, plants that vary in size. Yes, we are now talking about underwater seagrass beds.

There are 12 main genera of phanerogams which form submarine subjects, in the tropical 7zones (
Halodule, Cymodocea, Syringodium, Thalassodendron, Enhalus, Thalassia, Halophila ) and in the mild
5zones ( Zostera, Phyllospadix, Heterozostera, Posidonia, Amphibolis ). They are photophilic species
which need precise light conditions to be able to perform photosynthesis, living in the infralittoral plane
(although some extend to the mesolittoral plane). The shapes and sizes can be very different in the thalli
and leaves, as we see in the picture below.

These grasslands have a wide global distribution, with diversity tending to be greatest in the Indo-Pacific
region. Multi-species stands are common in these areas, while in more temperate zones single-species
stands are typical.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEAGRASSES AND ALGAE

The difference with algae lies in the morphological
difference of the various parts in plants (leaves, stem or
rhizome and roots) whereas in algae the organs are
indistinct. Plants produce flowers, fruits and seeds. Macro-
algae often grow on hard substrates, whereas marine
phanerogams, because they have true roots, need a build-
up of sediment to become established. The leaves produced
by the plants inside are the youngest, while those on the
outside are the oldest, which will become increasingly
brown until they fall off.

99
MEDITERRANEAN SEAGRASSES VS POSIDONIA
- Mediterranean seagrasses include Cymodocea Nodosa, which has smaller, thinner leaves than the
famous Posidonia and does not have scales at the base of its leaves like Posidonia.
- Another plant is Halophila Stipulacea, a plant native to the Red Sea.
- Zostera Marina and Zostera Noltei are phanerogams of the Adriatic Sea.
- Finally, the species of the genus Ruppia are not properly marine because they live in less salty areas.

Guide to recognising
marine phanerogams.
Start with the first
step and continue
until you find the one
with the characteristics
you have.

100
IN SICILY SEAGRASS

In Sicily Posidonia and Cymodocea are the most common plants, Halophila, Zostera Marina and
Nanozostera have a more minute distribution. On the following pages is the Sicilian distribution.

101
CHARACTERISTICS OF POSIDONIA
The genus Posidonia has 9 species in the world 1 in the Mediterranean and 8 southern Australia,

ORIGIN POSIDONIA:

This disjunct bipolar range with only two areas so far apart leads us to suppose that initially the range of
Posidonia was unique and was then restricted by competition with other tropical species.

Their origin as a genus occurred in the Cretaceous Secondary Era (about 120 million years ago) and
they have evolved backwards like all marine plants, since they evolved on land and then returned to
the sea.

Their primary production is very high, both hypogeal and epigeal (700 to 2500 grams per square metre
per year).
In general, the absorption of light, as a function of the density of chlorophyll, is higher in the
phanerogams than in the algae. The production of biomass takes place mainly in the leaves, and then it
can accumulate a lot in the hypogeal portion. Their dry weight is 50-850 grams per square metre.

Limiting factors of POSIDONIA include :

1. Light intensity: they are particularly sensitive to the transparency of the water as they require
strong light intensity due to the respiration of non-photosynthetic parts.
2. Salinity: they are sensitive to variations in salinity, and can only live in stable areas (range 15-55 per
thousand).
3. Nutrients: in the tropics they are phosphorus limited (phosphorus bound to iron oxyhydroxides), in
temperate zones are limited nitrogen.
4. Diffusion of inorganic carbon sources such as CO2 and HCO3-.
5. Temperature: some metabolic and nutrient uptake processes are temperature dependent.
6. Water movements increase primary productivity rates by mixing and distributing
nutrients and gases and removing waste.

102
 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SEAGRASS MEADOWS
PRIMARY PRODUCERS:

In grassland systems there are seagrasses, but there are other primary producers, such as epiphytic algae
living on plant leaves, macroalgae living on hard substrates such as rocks, and phytoplankton in the
water column.
Epiphytes have a high seasonality, in winter they decrease in number, while in summer their population
increases. Their biomass reaches high values in summer and their primary production is very important.

CONSUMERS:
Consumers in this area are of many species, and in areas where plant forms and structures are more
diverse (and therefore offrono varied habitats) their biodiversity is greatest. In general there are
consumer organisms living on leaves (and on epiphytes), at the base of their leaf bundles and also among
their rhizobia.

HERBIVORES:
Few herbivores in these areas feed on the plants, because the organic matter in the leaves is of low
nutritional value due to the high presence of cellulose, and the plants often produce phenolic molecules
to make themselves unpalatable or even lethal.
- These species are turtles, dugongs, sea urchins, a few species of crustaceans and fish.

Herbivores on epiphytes, on the other hand, are many more, because the tissues of these plants are
much richer in nutrients and defend themselves less than plants.
- Crustaceans, nematodes and polychaetes are among the most common herbivores of epiphytes.

DETRITUS CHAIN:
The detritus chain is very important here, due to the large presence of dead leaf tissue that is degraded
and increased in nutritional value by fungi and bacteria.

Predators in this ecosystem include fish species and decapod crustaceans.

The base of the plants are poorly colonised due to the lack of light and nutrients (diatoms and bacteria),
in the central areas there will be diatoms and small encrusting red algae, while at the apex of the plant
biodiversity is highest, with various types of algae and small organisms

There is great complexity in the grasslands:

- many vagile organisms outside the
grassland,
- but also many sessile and vagile
organisms between the leaves, stems
and in the sediment.
- Between the leaf fascicles the
currents often slow down and drop
their sediment.
- This accumulation of sediment
between the leaves is called Matte.
These areas can grow up to several
metres in height, and it is a
compartment rich in life. The matte
along with the grasslands themselves
also act as excellent carbon stores.

103
 Grassland plants have well-marked seasonal cycles:

-Spring is the period of new leaf growth.

-In the summer, young growing leaves will meet with the
maximum colonisation by epiphytes.

-In autumn, the adult leaves are detached from the plantwith the
first autumn storms or simple sea storms. The leaves alsobecome
detritus.

-In winter the adult leaves reach out to sea, feeding the
other ecosystems, or accumulate along coastlines forming
banquettes. Decomposing detritus leads to the formation of
fibres that are compacted by currents.

The main herbivores of Posidonia only Salpa leave large circular holes on the edges of the leaves, isopods
leave small misses, while sea urchins leave large jagged leaf surfaces.
In tropical environments, herbivores are more important and control primary production.

In the production of posidonia leaves and similar plants, it is estimated that only 20% of their biomass is
used by herbivores, of which 30% is used in situ as detritus, 30% is exported and removed from the
production area, and another 30% is accumulated in rhizomes and substrate (where it does not degrade).

104
 TROPHIC NETWORKS
There are various metabolic pathways in this ecosystem.

— Photosynthetic leaf tissue pathway -

PHANEROGRAMS:
In these areas there are few herbivores, little
grazing is effected. The causes of this low
utilisation of leaf tissue are :
1. High content of structural carbohydrates such as
cellulose
2. High content of phenolic compounds, compounds
deterring grazing
3. Low nitrogen concentrations.

— Street of the epiphytes -

EPIPHYTES
In contrast to phanerogams, the consumption of
epiphytes is much more effected. This is due to :
1. Low in structural carbohydrates
2. With a low content of deterrent compounds the
pasture
3. High energy value

— Detritus route -

The types of detritus consumed include: litter

(fragmented parts of leaves), suspended and dissolved
particles and detritus trapped between epiphytes.
Detritus is highly consumed in these environments:
1. Reduction of phenolic compounds
2. Nitrogen increase

— Other sources of organic matter -

These sources can be: macroalgae, benthic and planktonic microalgae, particulate matter, terrestrial
organic matter.

ECOLOGICAL ROLE-GRASSLANDS
The ecological role of these grasslands is always the same:
3. High production of oxygen and organic matter through photosynthesis.
4. Stabilisation of the seabed by root rhizomes.
5. Protection of the coastline from erosion.
6. Shelter, food and protection for many species of invertebrates and vertebrates.
7. Nursery areas for many organisms also of economic importance.
8. Export production of a large amount of biomass through a complex trophic network
which also transfers energy outside the prairie.
9. And hear ye, hear ye... carbon sink, my goodness, I did not expect that. Posidonia oceanica meadows
are...
among the best carbon sinks, as the hanks they produce are of enormous size, form over centuries and
are a very stable compartment.

105
IMAGES THAT I WAS ANNOYED TO PROCESS

106
LAGOONS AND PONDS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
They are more or less variable environments, and their main characteristic is their high variability on
even small spatial and temporal scales.

The lagoons are :

1. Effimerous environments (we change very quickly) as a function of sea level changes (rise/fall due to
tectonic processes and eustasy)
2. Typical microtidal areas with high wave energy
3. With variable salinity (freshwater to hyperaline)
4. Material traps
5. Rich in flora and fauna
6. Centres heavily populated by humans

Lagoons are areas affected by marine influence, with marine flows passing through tides from large
channels. They are environments where sedimentation processes are high due to continental inputs from
streams or runoff water that contribute materials, and due to low hydrodynamics they sediment.

- Theless they are connected to the sea, the higher the sedimentation will be.
In these shallow environments, in addition to sedimentation, there is also re-suspension of sediment in
the water column due to wind. Water column and substrate are coupled (benthos-pelagic coupling)
because of these shallow depths. It is often difficult to separate plankton from benthos in these areas
due to this re-suspension.

In these areas the substrates are not hard, except for boulders or stones, but it is mobile.

- In addition, they are areas subject to seasonality, (especially in temperate zones) with lower
temperatures and lower salinity due to high precipitation in winter, and warmer temperatures and
higher salinity due to lower precipitation and high evaporation in summer.
- This happens because of the low height of the water column, which makes it more susceptible to
climatic variations, unlike the sea, whose depth makes deep areas more stable.
- As a result, species that are more tolerant of environmental variations, able to tolerate wide ranges of
temperature and salinity, proliferate in these areas.

The lagoon is an environment that communicates with the sea through active inlets,
- . In the lagoons the circulation is given by the tidal currents and by the wind force
the pond is characterised by temporary or effimere communication with the sea in front of it. –
- while in the ponds where the marine influence is low, the winds have the greatest influence (this is
due to the lack of canals and sandbanks, and the exchanges with the sea are guaranteed through
underground contributions).

In ponds the depth and amount of sediment increases as we move towards the central parts of the pond.
In lagoons the depth and amount of sediment increases as we move towards the furthest reaches of the
sea. Species will also position themselves differently in lagoons and ponds following these gradients.

107
FORMATION OF PONDS AND LAGOONS

There are various ways in which lagoons and ponds can form.

1) Lagoons can form when there are two

watercourses whose mouths are close to each other as
sources of sediment, and there are sea currents
transporting it to the same area filling a sea area. The
hydraulic regime is regulated by the balance between
lateral transport and tides.

POND FORMATION MODELS:

- Among the various models of pond formation, one
proposes that a watercourse produces a delta that
expands towards the sea and then expands
laterally to form narrow coastal blades of
sediment stretching along the wings of the delta.
In this process of sedimentation some areas can
close up trapping parts of the sea (lakes
Sabaudia, Patria and Burano were formed through
this process).

2) Ponds can be formed by the aborted development of

clustered littoral arrows. This process differs from the
former (in which the littoral arrows proceeded roughly
along a straight line) by the fact that the rapidly increasing
depth along the direction of arrow growth causes the bar
to involute, distorting into a hook, and then running out
(e.g. the Tindari Ponds and the Marinello Ponds).

3) If there are several headlands in a coastal

area next to a river, sediment transport from
the river can close the area between two
headlands creating adjacent coastal ponds
('cascading'). They can form when lateral
transport results in the closure of several bays.
In this case the littoral arrows are not aborted,
as the sea-beds are optimal for their
completion ( Ponds of Lesina, of Varano ).

4) Another method of pond formation is the progression of a deltaic

apparatus confined between two headlands. Sediment moving
laterally from the mouth and meeting the headlands can trap
marine areas (ponds of Santa Giusta, S'Ena Arrubia both in
Sardinia).

108
 5) If there is an islet in front of the coastline, erosion in the shallow
area of the islet itself may lead to the formation of littoral arrows
of divergent sediments that advance towards the coastal zone and
may close the coastal zone behind.

6) In contrast to the previous method, sediment transport can

be from two watercourses converging towards islands
(Orbetello Lagoons) or shallow shorelines.

7) Finally, ponds or lagoons can formed by the

Finally, ponds or lagoons can formed by the lateral and
convergent transport of sediment from two mouths to a bay
between the two rivers (many Sardinian ponds have been formed
in this way).

109
 THE LAKE

Characteristics of lagoons :

1. High instability of chemical and physical variables

2. Reduced hydrodynamics
3. Vertical mixing and re-suspension by wind and tidal action
4. Inputs of organic and inorganic material from both rivers and the sea
5. Significant development of sedimentary area in relation to water volume
6. Low depth
7. Fine sediments
8. Richness of organic matter
9. High nutrient concentrations in watercourses and runoff water
10. High primary production
11. Variable biota

There are marked seasonal cilci :

1. Continental and marine inputs of nutrients in winter
2. Nutrients that are used in spring by phytoplankton and macroalgae with an increase in light hours,
which can result in blooms, i.e. sudden increases in phytoplankton biomass, causing waters to turn
greenish. Where waters are higher there will be low primary production in benthos. In addition, high
nutrients lead to trophic migrations of commercial fish species (natural migration).
3. In summer there will be dystrophic crises, i.e. high biomass used in part by herbivores but a large part
will become necromass which will be degraded by decomposers using oxygen.
- This consumption of oxygen can lead to anoxia, which can be lethal for some species such as
invertebrates and vertebrates, due to the conditions of encroachment and low water
circulation(EUTROPHICATION) .
4.At the end of the summer, conditions should return to normal (resilience).

110
 FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE LAGOON
In the populations of lagoon flora and fauna, euryhaline and eurythermal species predominate.

- Only the most tolerant species can resist.

- Biological diversity decreases from the sea (many species but few individuals) towards the interior (few
species but many individuals), and in general it is not very high.

-The species present tend to be present in high numbers, due to the low number of predators and competition.
Opportunistic species are present as in polluted areas.

- Fractioning phenomena in local races can occur, that is the formation of species with forms morphologically
distinguishable from thoseof the open sea (for example the dwarfism of many species).

A distinction is made between species that carry out their entire life cycle in these areas, i.e. alolimnobe
species and alolimnophile species that enter these environments mainly for trophic reasons, especially at
times of high productivity.

Regarding the vegetable ????

There is cyclicity in benthic macro-invertebrate communities:
1. Spring : recruitment of marine meroplanktonic origin (continental contributions are weak),
increase in specific wealth.
2. Summer: Stress due to chemical and physical changes, which causes young mortality, reduced diversity,
dystrophic crises and decimation of populations.
3. Autumn: new recruitment takes place, increasing the specific wealth.
4. Winter: Reduction in biomass due to mortality or slow growth as a result of adverse conditions
winter.

Fish species are divided into

1. resident (or sedentary) species
2. migratory (or transient) species, which in turn are divided into permanent and occasional
migratory species.

Resident fish species present :

1. Strong eurivalence, i.e. the ability to tolerate even wide variations in the main chemical and physical
parameters.
2. Small size.
3. Short life cycle.
4. Fast growth.
5. Early sexual maturity.
6. Long reproductive period (spring-summer).
7.Low production of eggs and larvae (with brieflarval period), resulting in parental care .

PARENTAL CARE FISH EFFECT AND EGGS:

- Gobiidae : they lay their eggs in nests prepared by the males, who then provide the eggs.
oxygenation of the eggs by fanning (movement of the ventral fins over the nest) and protection of theeggs.
- Syngnathidae (seahorses): the eggs are laid by the females and received in an area
of the males' bodies (an incubator pouch or marsupium). The males protect and nourish their offspringuntil the
young are at an advanced stage of development.
- Egg protection: large eggs are often equipped with adhesive filaments in order to protect the eggs.
reduce their dispersion in the environment (e.g. eggs of Atherinidae and Gobiidae).

111
 Migratory fish species are :
1. They are also highly eurivalent
2. Medium or large size
3. Long average life
4. Sexual maturity after the second or thirdyear of life
5. Limited reproductive period
6. High production of eggs and larvae
7. Long larval period with high mortality
8. Migration
9. I nve r nal re cl ute me nt phase -spring
10. Growth phase in summer
11. Migration phase towards the open sea onopen sea of
adults and sub-adults in the autumn period.

Catadromous species are species that live in

freshwater but breed in saltwater, they are quirky
little fish.

BIRDLIFE
As far as birdlife is concerned, these areas are used as roosting areas for many species, with guano
playing an important role through predation. The lagoons are visited by birds such as herons, ducks,
gazelles, flamingos and cormorants. These birds may employ different hunting strategies.

In lagoon trophic networks much energy is exported to other areas by birds and migratory fish species.

112
LAGOONS AND PONDS VALUE :
Lagoons are of great importance for their :
1. Scientific and naturalistic interest due to the great ecological value of these areas and the great
variety of species and variability.
2. Protectionist interest, almost all these areas in the world are subject to constraints and observation.
3. Economic interest, many cities are located close to transition areas because they are
areas oftrade, fisheries, aquaculture.

FISHING IN THE LAGOONS

Fishing in the lagoon is a traditional fishery often done by hand by fishermen's cooperatives, who catch
migratory species as well as resident species, such as mullet, crab, small fry such as gobies.
The landscape of these environments is also influenced by the ancient fishing culture.
Among the most important species are the mullets on the Sardinian and Spanish coasts, often used for
the production of botargo.

For migratory species it is necessary to use structures

that influence or limit the movement from outside to
inside the lagoons. Fixed weirs called Lavorieri are
placed in the channels between the sea and the lagoon,
they remain open during the season of entry of migratory
species and are closed during the season of exit from the
lagoons in order to catch fish.
These weirs are often made of wire nets that allow the
passage of water and small organisms not to be fished,
but block the passage of larger organisms to be fished.

Bertovelli traps are often used in conjunction with weirs. These traps are made of conical nets, one after
the other, which allow the entry of the fish, which is enticed by the presence of bait, but which do not
allow the exit because the holes are small.

113
Another type of net is the Rezz net, which is a circular net with a rope
from the centre of the circumference. Lead weights are placed at the
edges, so that when the net is thrown open into the water, it is the
circumference that first touches the bottom, catching the fish in its
area.

AQUACULTURE IN LAGOONS
The aquaculture carried out in these areas is extensive as opposed to intensive commercial aquaculture.
1. In intensive aquaculture, the food is fed by humans, the farmed species are monitored, and the fish are
kept in the wild.
throughout their life cycle, fish are reared at high densities on small expanses of artificial
environments (high economic cost).
2. In semi-intensive aquaculture, the feed is only fed as a supplementary feed, for one week.
supplementary diet or to fertilise the water.
3. In extensive aquaculture, no food source is provided by the farmer for growth
Vine farming is practised over large areas in natural or semi-natural environments such as lagoons,
ponds or salt marshes.

Fish numbers are increased and optimal conditions for fish are provided, for example by keeping the
channels and mouths of these transitional environments open at all times and regulating their flow.

Extensively reared fish are fish that are normally found in lagoons, so their natural tendency to migrate
to and from the lagoon is exploited. In order to increase the numbers of farmed fish (seeding process),
juvenile wild fish are caught (as in the case of mugulids and eels) or fry (in the case of sea bass and sea
bream), i.e. juvenile rearing facilities. A community is created at the expense of natural trophic resources
and only commercial-sized adults are caught in bertovelli cages.

Following this method produces high quality fish in a sustainable and more natural way than intensive
farming.

In these man-made lagoons, additional channels are often dug

deeper than normal. These so called wintering channels are made
to provide fish with areas where temperatures drop less during
the winter seasons, deeper channels provide milder
temperatures. These channels are necessary because normally
migratory fish after 9 months of growth in the lagoons would
leave to return to the sea. As artificial lagoon locks block the
migration of fish, these channels are necessary to ensure liveable
and low-stress conditions for the fish.

Due to the large number of fish in these areas, large quantities of oxygen must be present, especially in
the summer period. To remedy this. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are often sown in these
processes to ensure the fish can breathe.

As lagoons naturally are areas that attract fish-eating birds, nets must be placed over the lagoon
channels to prevent birdlife from feeding on the farmed fish.

Ponds and lagoons are also used for mussel farming.

114
ECOLOGICAL ROLE AND ALTERATION FACTORS-LAGOONS AND PONDS
Like all other transition areas the ecological role of ponds and marshes are:
1. High primary and secondary production
2. Nursery and support areas for coastal fishing
3. Stopover and hunting areas for birds (birds export organic matter to other environments)
4. Buffer ecosystem between land and sea preventing erosion
5. Coastal protection
6. Carbon sink
7. Accumulation of contaminants and heavy metals of continental origin (ecological filters1)
The alteration factors are also the usual ones:
1. Urbanisation.
2. Pollutant inputs.
3. Alteration of the hydrodynamic regime. In fact, these environments, especially ponds, are subject
to normal entirely because they are sedimentation basins. The mouths normally tend to close due
to theaccumulation of sediment, but of course natural times are longer than human alteration
times.
4. Production activities. Fertilisers from neighbouring farms can end up in these areas, altering the
chemical equilibria.
5. Climate change. Conditions become more and more extreme.

115
ROCKY COASTS : INTERTIDAL

The intertidal zone of rocky coasts is a system influenced by tidal regime and wave motion. Two

systems can be distinguished according to their exposure to wave motion:

1. Exposed systems resulting in eroding
habitats
habitat) and therefore turbulent and
suspension processes prevail. They are
mainly present in western Sicily. The
organisms inhabiting these areas must be
accustomed to resisting wave motion.

2. Sheltered systems that give

sedimenting habitats, where
sedimentation processes prevail. In very
sheltered environments, silt sedimentation
allows colonisation by seagrasses. These
systems are mainly present in eastern
Sicily. In these areas the organisms do not
have to worry so much about wave motion,
but will have to get used to a high
sedimentation regime.

In wave-exposed systems, organic matter and

oxygen arrive, larvae arrive, and more water
splashes arrive in the intertidal. However,
sessile plants and animals have more
problems adhering to the substrate and risk
being uprooted. In sheltered areas, on the
other hand, the sedimentation process may
interfere with respiration.

116
The intertidal zone is affected by the tidal excursion, it is not an area that presents homogeneous
characteristics, and consequently the highest part of the intertidal presents very different
characteristics from the lowest part.
1. The highest part is the area affected by the highest tides ( Spring tides ) , while it usually exists in the
air. It is a very unstable and stressful zone, there are species adapted to emersion that can tolerate short
periods of immersion. The organisms here must withstand desiccation, exposure to direct sunlight, and
more intense temperature changes, and in the case of rests they must withstandexposure to fresh
water. In general, these areas are more extreme in their variability, as they are influenced by abiotic and
therefore oceanographic factors. Baleen, barnacles and mussels are classic organisms of the high
intertidal zone, and they have protective carbonate structures in which to shelter themselves during the
most adverse conditions and mechanical wave action.
2. The lowest part is an almost always submerged zone, which is only exposed during the lowest seasonal
tides. These are very stable and quiet areas, there are wakes adapted to emersion that can tolerate
short periods of emersion. The organisms here must tolerate emersion and be able to breathe even under
these conditions. In general, these areas are quieter, as they are influenced by biotic factors, asmore
species means more competition and predation.

In the splash zone of the supralittoral we find even more tolerant organisms, such as lichens, small
gastropod molluscs, cyanobacteria, green algae and small herbivores and amphipods.
In the intertidal we will find organisms such as balani, Fuscales algae, Cystoseiras in temperate zones,
and Sargassum in tropical zones.

The primary producers are algae in the lower zone of the intertidal, and classic proton like diatoms
covering the substrates.
Consumers are mainly

Underlying these variations in stand structure, looking at the environmental gradient from top to
bottom, are many physiological adaptations, evident in species found in various parts of the intertidal.

Abiotic variability: Balans living in the lower intertidal are in black, those living in the upper intertidal in
blue. Cirrus beat is used as an indicative measure of the metabolism of these organisms. Low-zone
organisms have a smaller range and an optimum at 20 degrees (there are milder and less variable
temperatures), high-zone organisms have a larger range and a higher optimum at degrees30 (there are
higher and more variable temperatures).

Biotic variability: Predation is often a controlling factor in more sheltered areas. Starfish are voracious
predators of mussels that live in the lower zone of the intertidal, whereas mussels can live both high and
low and are capable of great expansion. If starfish were not there to control the mussel population
through predation, the mussels would expand to the lower zones, supplanting many organisms that
naturally live in the lower zones and lowering biodiversity.

Biotic variability : Competition is a very prevalent and influential factor in more exposed areas.

In the Mediterranean as species we have :

1. In the supralittoral the black spots are lichens, we find balani such as the Littorina living in ravines.
2. In the mesolitoral zone we find annelids, sea tomatoes, vagile organisms such as the crab runner, limpets,and
red algae such as Lithophyllum Byssoides which marks the transition from the supra- to the mesolitoral

Reef puddles, permanently flooded areas in the cliffs, and reef puddles are common.
tide, which are inundated during high tide.

Climate change has a strong effect on these intertidal zones, as rising sea levels alter the normal tidal
balances between emersion and immersion. Rising temperatures are also not a good thing.

117
 COASTAL BIOCONSTRUCTIONS

They are structures that create organisms, and which persist when they die. They undergo continuous
growth, these organisms form carbonate structures, structures that are, however, subject to erosion.
These structures persist when there is a balance between output and input.
These bioconstructed structures offer new substrates, new opportunities for refuges or for finding
nourishment, and generally increase biological complexity.
-The more varied a substrate is, the more ecological niches it offers.

These habitat formers include: vermetids, madreporaria, many serpuloid polychaetes (sedentary filter-
feeding polychaetes), bivalves, algae and seagrasses.
Corals are the most famous and most studied.
The mussel beds on ponds and lagoons are also bio-constructions; plants, such as encrusting algae,
form themin association with animal organisms (calcareous algae in worm reefs).

The species that form these habitats alternate with latitude:

- In tropical areas coral reefs are common,
- in mild areas worms are the most common,
- in high latitudes coralline algae dominate,
- while polychaetes are present everywhere except in tropical
areas.

The peculiarities of bioconstructions are:

-increasing the structural complexity of the area,
-carbonate deposition,
-structural rigidity,
-increasing the positive topographic relief,
- and increasing biodiversity.

118
Habitat formers are considered to be habitat engineers who modify the habitat. The latter is a broader
concept that encompasses habitat formers.
1. Autogenous modifiers, whose morphology causes a local structural change, with their presence
they change the structure of the habitat with the permanence of this change upon their death (worm
platforms survive the death of the gastropod that built it).
-They are the true habitat formers and are sessile species (madreporaria, oysters, mussels, vermetids).

2. Allogenic modifiers, (they are only habitat engineers) whose behaviour causes with a change
in the structure of the habitat. They are, for example, all fossorial organisms, and are generally vagile
or sedentary species (some fish, some decapod crustaceans).

Posidonia oceanica is an engineer habitat as it modifies sandy substrates into a three-dimensional

environment with the formation of matte which is a new, positively elevated substrate.

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SPECIES HABITAT FORMERS AND THEIR STRUCTURES: POLYCHAETES

Ficopomatus enigmaticus (formerly Mercierella enigmaticus) is a former habitat species, a sedentary

polychaete living inside calcareous tubes formed by them. It has a length of 3 to 25 mm, operculum
diameter of 1-3 mm and a life cycle of 4 to 8 years. It is a species found in productive transitional areas,
with turbid waters because they are filter feeders, and with reduced hydrodynamics (such as estuaries,
harbours, lagoons and canals) which favours the construction of their calcareous tubes. It is a mild and
cosmopolitan species in Europe, first discovered in 1921 in a canal in northern France. They breed during
the summer season.

The overall structures they form are round with diameters of tens of centimetres, made up of individual
tubes cemented together. Older tubes from dead polychaetes are used as the basis for the construction
of new tubules for the newly recruited larvae. They form circular reefs, up to metres7 in diameter and
metres0,5 in height.

Within and on these structures we find many other vagile organisms, such as isopods, crabs, wandering
polychaetes, gastropods, amphipods, diatoms, in short, all organisms that would not live on the simple
muddy substrate, on which often only polychaetes dominate while many other species need more
complicated substrates.

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In areas where Ficopomatus (and generally all habitat formers) thrive, new trophic networks form due to
the high presence of prey, as shown in the diagram below. Birds are often more present in areas where
there are these bioconstructions.

Sabellaria Alveolata, is another species of bio-constructing polychaetes also

found in Sicily. Their constructions are made from the surrounding sand or
from the remains of shells, all cemented together to form tubes using
organic substances. These tubes are therefore not carbonates, they cannot
live anywhere because they require sand of a specific grain size. Each tube
can be up to 12 cm long and 5 mm in diameter and can extend up to
several metres in length and one metre in height, forming real barriers.
They are found at depths between the surface and 20 metres mainly in
intertidal coastal waters, but also in the subtidal zone of the
Mediterranean.

They have a growth line influenced by aerodynamic conditions as

their tubes are not so rigid, moreover the tubes are built in a direction that
allows filtration, i.e. towards the dominant current.
If the currents are too strong, there may be mechanical damage, if the
hydrodynamics are too weak, the sand particles required for
construction are not put into suspension and therefore cannot be used
and collected. In general, the required hydrodynamics is medium.

When densely aggregated, these tubes form a structure reminiscent of

a beehive (hence the scientific name). They can be found both in the
intertidal and subtidal zones. They are often placed on rocky or hard
substrates. Submerged structures are excellent barriers which absorb
wave motion, protect the coastline and so on and so forth.

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After the trochophore stage, the animal settles on a solid substrate, which may be a small stone, a shell,
or a large boulder, provided that the surrounding environment contains sand of a suitable grain size,
which the animal needs to build its tubes. Sabellaria rejects angular, elongated or flattened sand grains,
but prefers rounded, well-smoothed grains. Grain size therefore seems to be the fundamental selective
fact for reef construction, while the mineralogical composition of the sediment is of little relevance.

The tubes that Sabellaria builds grow first horizontally and then vertically, forming round pillow-shaped
constructions (image below).
In areas with strong currents, reefs stretch out in the direction perpendicular to the main current and,
under extreme hydrodynamic conditions, can grow obliquely to bring their openings towards the more
sheltered side.

The tubes that form the cushions grow very quickly in the lower part of the reef and more slowly in the
upper part. This results in reefs that grow in the direction perpendicular to the main current and wave
motion. Then the reefs can join together to form slowly growing platforms, often covered with algae.
These structures may evolve into shoals, with orientations dependent on substrate shape and
hydrodynamics.

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SPECIES HABITAT FORMERS AND THEIR STRUCTURES: WORM PLATFORMS
They are horizontal extensions of the coastline that almost resemble pavements. They are found in
various geographical areas, in the Mediterranean they are within the 14 degree winter isotherm, and are
therefore more typical of warmer areas. they are present in some areas of Sicily.

The main species that produces them is the gastropod Dendropoma cristatum. Associated with these
species are numerous species of encrusting red algae (Neogoniolithon Brassica-Florida, which cements
the shells of D. Cristatum together) and the mollusc Vermetus Triquertus, which lives in the cuvettes or
under the outer margin and is less tolerant of exposure.

The carbonate concretions are not flat but form more diverse surfaces. In the holes with opercula the
gastropod is still present, where there is no operculum the gastropod is dead. Hermit crabs, algae and
other organisms can live in these free holes without opercula. These platforms form in the intertidal
zone, extending the intertidal stretch towards the sea. They can also form platforms that form islets,
atolls, or long platforms away from the coast.

These bioconstructions were first described in 1854 by M. De Quadrefages who noticed a strange
construction in the area of Isola delle Femmina that he called trottoir à vermets. No one noticed these
formations for about a century.
In 1953, Molinier and Picard redescribed the trottoir of Isola delle Femmine and highlighted the risk
these formations were running due to coastal pollution.

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The structure of platforms is very complex. In fact,
the platform can be divided into zones3, the
margin or inner edge where the platform starts
from the coastline, the outer edge where the
platform ends, and hollow zones within the
platform called cuvettes. The cuvettes remain full
of water even at low tide (a perfect
environment for the proliferation of Vermetus
Triquertus), while the edge zones are intertidal.
Between one cuvette and another there may be a
raised area called the crest, which then belongs to
the intertidal.

The shell of Dendropoma is tubular, the first turns are spiral, then the coiling becomes irregular. It can
be up to cm5,6 long. It reproduces between July and December. The sexes are separate, fertilisation is
internal, thanks to the males' pelagic spermatophores that reach the females' tube.

In order to adapt to life in this intertidal environment they have formed, bioconstituent organisms are
equipped with an operculum that closes completely at low tide. They are active filter feeders,
incubating their eggs in the cavity of their mantle. They release already developed juvenile crawlers that
are ready for settlement.

As far as feeding is concerned, apart from being filter feeders (filtering the water collects particulate
matter, animals and planktonic algae) the gastropods of the worms can be divided into :
3. Suspension Feeding such as Vermetus Enderi, which uses classical filtration strategies.
4. Mucus Feeding as Serpulorbis Arenaria, which uses nets made of mucous material secreted by the
its mouth to capture organic matter, when something gets caught in the net Arenaria swallows all the
mucus.

We can draw similarities with tropical reefs: they are both bioconstructions that include both animals
and calcareous algae, they both increase the complexity and heterogeneity of the habitat, they both
increase biodiversity, and they are both sensitive to changes in the chemical and physical parameters of
the water.

These platforms increase biological diversity but also protect coastlines, and ma va.

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COASTAL BIOCONSTRUCTIONS

WORM PLATFORMS
Threats due to anthropogenic activities :
1. Tourism with footfall
2. Movement of vessels altering surface wave motion
3. Pollution
4. Erosion of dead reefs can lead to the collapse of the entire structure
5. The acidification of the oceans, on worm platforms that are formed from carbonates, damages them,
and damages the larval states of the worms themselves

ROCKY COASTS - SUBTIDAL

In rocky subtidal areas we find algae, algae with calluses with which they adhere to the rocks. In these
rocky subtidal areas there will be macroalgae, sessile organisms, but also the vagile and mobile
organisms that are common to sandy shores.

In the Arctic and temperate zones, Kelp forests, brown algae that can grow to enormous sizes, are more
common.
Coral reefs are more common in tropical areas.

KELP FORESTS(bosques de alga)

Kelp is a group of brown algae consisting of a sucker-like callus, a more or less robust and long stem and
a leafy body with pigment-rich laminae. Due to their enormous size, they are even referred to as kelp
forests.

The main genera are Laminaria, Ecklonia, Macrocystis and Sargassum.

They are typical of cold environments because they do not tolerate high T, and are accustomed to high
hydrodynamics, which they can withstand thanks to suckers and strong, short stems (in areas with lower
hydrodynamics they can thin out and grow in height, even up to 60 m). They can only live at low levels
of sedimentation.

They can grow to a depth of 20-30

metres and have a low resistance to
surfacing.

Their growth is basal, even a few

centimetres per day, and their
primary production is enormous. Their
main herbivore is the sea urchin.

They are found on the northern

coasts of Europe, northern coasts of
North America, and southern coasts of
South America, and finally the coasts
of the Far East.

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The various kelp genera have different morphologies, although they always have in common the presence
of suckers, stems and leaf bodies.
1. Pelagophycus Porra has a branched
callus, a long, flexible stem, and a
fringed,threadlike leaf body.
2. Nereocystys Leutkena possesses a slender
stem, at the top of which are branches
from which the leaf bodies depart from the
large area.
3. Macrocystis Pyrifera on the other hand grows its
leaf body all along the stem, which can
reach the water surface and bend in its
direction. This genus has air bladders along
its stem that keep the plant upright and
prevent it from falling over due to its
weight.

The flexible sto is important for resisting hydrodynamics. Because it is flexible and not rigid, it can bend
to follow the movement of waves and currents and avoid resisting them. They also take on a more
hydrodynamic shape as they bend. By absorbing the mechanical energy of the waves and currents, these
plants also act as barriers to the shoreline.

Kelp species are excellent structuring species, complexing the architecture of the water column instead
of just hard substrate. Their bodies themselves are also new substrates in which organisms can live, and
their size modifies the light and transparency conditions of the water. Finally, they offrono the
possibility of forming new trophic networks (also thanks to their biomass that can be used as food).

Hydrodynamics is important in mild and polar environments. These algae assume different morphology
depending on the sheltered or exposed environment in which they live.
1. In sheltered environments: the jamb will be hollow and long, the edge of the sheets will be rippled
(thus
increasing the
turbulence, a necessary condition for nutrient uptake), and have a higher growth rate (to increase the
surface area of exchanges).
2. In exposed environments: the stipe is short and solid, the edge of the laminae will be smooth
and
affusolate, and the growth
will be smaller.

Growth occurs at the base of the leaf blade, while in the apical zone there is weakening and senescence,
the apical parts are then eroded and become very nutritious debris.
Production of high concentrations of DOM which is either used by bacteria or is aggregated into POM and
then transferred into trophic networks. Filter feeders mainly use POM and DOM produced by kelp.

Many of the consumers in these areas are filter feeders, vagile organisms that find refuge among the
kelp, their predators will have trouble getting through these dense forests.
There is an abundance of herbivores: limpets, amphipods and isopods grazing on the rocks and jambs.
Sea urchins are the main herbivore grazing on kelp, and their grazing even controls the growth of kelp
populations. In small species such as those in the genus Laminaria, urchins consume the entire seaweed.

126
For many small fish these areas are used as nursery areas. They are important areas because they
support fishing both directly and indirectly.

DUALISM KELP FORESTS AND CORAL BARRENS

Urchins are voracious predators and can even wipe out these forests entirely. In many areas, you can go
from forest conditions to much simpler areas called coral barrens, areas where the boulders are covered
with coralline encrusting algae and large numbers of urchins.

The transition from forest to barren occurs when the algal detritus is not sufficient to feed the abundant
urchin populations, which begin to eat the kelp leaves directly. Sooner or later the urchins will decimate
the kelp, which will leave the substrate free, and it will then be colonised by the encrusting algae on
which the urchins begin to feed. Any attempt to grow kelp will be in vain as the urchins will prevent its
efficacious growth, while the encrusting algae whose growth rate exceeds the urchins' voracity will
continue to proliferate, thus managing to resist their continued grazing.

In some areas this process may be reversible. The initial barren can be re-colonised by kelp when
hedgehog abundances decline due to biotic or abiotic factors that may act simultaneously.

Causes of declining urchin abundance may include the action of

efficacious predators such as sea otters, declining populations of
otter predators, urchin deaths caused by pathogens and
epidemics (which accelerate as populations increase),
temperature anomalies that may aid the action of bacteria or
viruses, and the occurrence of extreme weather events that can
decimate urchin populations such as storms or hurricanes.

Biotic control mechanisms on hedgehogs often operate through

top-down effects. Changes in populations of top predators can
affect the trophic chain in its entirety.
An increase in the killer whale population leads to a decrease in
the otter population which will take fewer urchins, which will
eventually take more kelp, decreasing their numbers and
altering the kelp forests.
Conversely, a decrease in the population of the top predator
may have an opposite effect at the end of the trophic chain.

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Other animals besides otters control the hedgehog
population, including :
1. Lobsters feeding on crabs and mussels, but when the
urchins are plentiful and prey on them.
2. Fish species may contribute, albeit to a lesser extent, to
thecontrol of hedgehog populations.

These two types of environment are in dynamic equilibrium.

They are two stable alternating states when considered over
a long period of time. Variations over time between urchin
and seagrass populations are often given by variations in
otter populations. These dynamic equilibrium phenomena
have been documented in some studies such as the case in
Alaska shown opposite.

ROLE OF KELP FORESTS AND SOURCES OF DISTURBANCE

Kelp is a very important resource including :
1. High primary and biomass production
2. Grazing, breeding and refuge area for many species
3. The kelp detritus can also reach the coasts, forming accumulations of significant masses,
where itcreate new systems, which host various organisms and protect the coastline
4. Wave mitigation
5. Fishing support
6. Human nutrition
7. Industrial uses (production of aglinates)
Altering factors include :
1. Collection
2. Grazers
3. Pollution
4. Excessive sedimentation

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MEDITERRANEAN ROCKY SUBTIDAL
In the Mediterranean, laminaria are not very abundant, but are present in the Strait of Sicily and the
Ligurian Sea, while algae of the genus Fucus are present in the Adriatic. Macro-algae are not present in
the same quantity in our sea.

Posidonia can also grow on rocky substrate.

Other brown algae can live on these hard substrates, such as

Cystoseira and Ericaria. They are algae with not very high thallus,
reaching heights of a few centimetres. These algal thalli are
however associated with biological diversity.

The species ericaria amentacea marks the transition between

meso- and infralittoral (the mussel equivalent of the oceans) forming
a true fringe. Associated with these algae we find crabs of the
Percnon Gibbesi species, although it is not easy to spot because of
its speed of movement and competes with the autochthonous
runner crab.

Predation effects have also been recorded in

the Mediterranean Sea that modify hard
substrate habitats, leading to an increase or
decrease in Cystoseira populations. In some
marine protected areas, bream populations
have shown an increase in density and size
following the implementation of the fishing
ban. They feed on more urchins, which in
turn feed less on algae that can proliferate,
increasing biodiversity.

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CORAL REEFS

They are bioconstructions, consisting of habitat formers i.e. anthozoan coelnterates, hermatipic corals
and algae (all called madreporaria). Mainly hexa-corals, we find them in warm, tropical areas. They are
species tolerated at high temperatures but do not tolerate low winter temperatures (they only live in
areas with minimum winter temperatures of not less than 18-20°C, i.e. in the tropics).

The term Coral Reef is inappropriate because it gives prominence to animal importance without giving
importance to the coralline and encrusting algae that are very important. Algae and animals annually fix
high amounts of calcium and carbon dioxide.
There must be a neutral or positive balance from coral growth inputs and tidal erosion outputs.

They occupy small areas in the oceans (0.2% of the ocean surface) and are limited to certain depths and
latitudes. They are distributed in two large macro-regions, the Caribbean area and the Indo-Pacific area,
the latter being larger and showing the greatest biodiversity and experiencing a smaller and therefore
stable annual temperature range. Where biodiversity is reduced there is a greater temperature range. In
general, the higher the environmental stability, the higher the biodiversity, so these are areas populated
by stenoecious and stenothermic species(narrow temperature range).

There are three types of coral structures:

1. Fringes: are constructions attached to the continental area,
arise a short distance from the coast. The largest is in
the Red Sea, where freshwater inputs are minimal, so
there is high water transparency.

2. Barriers: these are constructions located at a certain distance from the

distance from the coast. The most famous reef is
certainly the kilometre-long2000 Great Barrier Reef of
Australia.

3. Atolls: are circular or annular coral structures at which the

in the centre are areas known as lagoons (which have
nothing to do with those studied earlier), shallow
transparent areas with coral sediments. The atolls were
studied by Darwin, who explained their genesis by
subsidence, i.e. the formation of a coral fringe around a
volcanic islet which sinks over time, leaving a coral belt
around the lagoon.

130
 Corals contain several taxonomic
groups, they are hexacorals, but we
also find other cnidarians. Their
shapes are very varied, from
massive to branched, from flattened to
encrusting, from leafy to free-living.
The position in a reef is closely linked
to the shape of the coral. Reefs are
in fact very high environments, and
consequently there are various
chemical and physical gradients
according to which the species are
distributed, such as light, pressure,
currents and wind etc.

The area of the reef that is exposed to waves and currents is the reef front, which often forms ridges,
i.e. raised areas that overlook the slope of the reef. Behind the front is a flat area called reef flat, and
behind this is the most protected area of the reef due to its low hydrodynamics (if we are on an atoll,
this area is the lagoon). Areas with lagoon-like characteristics can be found between the reefs and the
island/continent behind (warm, transparent, very saline water with little movement). Often behind the
main reef there is a smaller reef (patch reefs) that takes advantage of the more sheltered conditions to
grow.

1. Reef Slope: the steepest part of the reef.

2. Reef Front : area with high hydrodynamics where algae and corals grow best (
Moreconcentrations of nutrients and plankton).
3. Algal Ridge : high hydrodynamics, presence of inconstant coralline algae of massive corals.
4. Reef Flat: special biotic characteristics (high irradiation, temperature and salinity). Corals
little branching except where there is a flow of water to avoid too high temperatures and salts.
5. Lagoon: sediments resulting from erosion of the barrier; barrier patches.
6. Sheltered area: corals grow less well.

Channels or furrows are formed in the barriers where water can flow to and from the lagoon. If there
were no such channels and the barriers were single, continuous blocks, the kinetic force of the waves
would be even stronger and unsustainable. These channels therefore function in the same way as the
channels that backwash currents form on sandy coasts. In addition, these channels allow the passage of
the smallest organisms, as well as the largest ones at high tide.

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FLORA AND FAUNA

Primary producers
1. Zooxanthellae are unicellular algae (dinoflagellates) that live in symbiosis with corals and are
the most important producers. The most common genus is Symbodinum, present with a density
of one million individuals per square centimetre on the surface of the polyp.
2. There are free-living algae that contribute to barrier formation, such as Halimeda and the algae
encrusting corals.
3. We can also find free-floating algae that do not build a barrier, often algae as
large asSargassum or much more common filamentous "algal turf".
4. Phytoplankton is present in the water column, but its production will be of little importance in
these
waters that are not very turbid and therefore not very rich in nutrients. Primary production is
therefore mainly benthic.

There is high primary production from corals. This is

possible because of the symbiosis between algae and
coral and the excellent recycling of organic matter.
Coral and seaweed have a trophic exchange, the
seaweed receives anhydride and nitrogenouswaste
from thecoral and thecoral receives sugars and
oxygen. Recycling of materials and energy is so
efficacious in these environments that the net
primary production of the system is approximately 0.

Under coral stress conditions, the first response is

the expulsion of coral zooxanthellae, which turn
white (bleaching). Due to rising temperatures and
global acidity, this stress phenomenon is increasingly
common. The arrival of pollutants or material into
the sea that clouds the water column also causes
this response.

In reef zoning, light is definitely the

most limiting factor. The corals will
always tend to expose the
zooxanthellae to light as much as
possible due to their shape and
arrangement.
In the surface areas, branching forms
are favoured, in intermediate areas
massive forms are more present, while
in the bottom area only flat and leafy
corals are present with the flat surface
facing upwards to maximise exposure
to light. Finally, in the deeper areas,
there are no more living corals, but
only the remnants of ancient, sunken
coral reefs.

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Consumers

Scleracritinar cnidarians are construction polyps that consume the zooplankton they catch with their
tentacles and organic matter from zooxanthellae. Some species are filter feeders.

The presence of zooxanthellae is not exclusive to cnidarians but to many coraligenous organisms. Shallow
species or specimens use more of the organic matter provided by the symbiosis, while organisms living at
greater depths will feed mainly on zooplankton.

Sea urchins (such as Evhinometra Mathaei and Diadema Antillarum) are important for maintaining coral
reefs. By controlling macroalgae through grazing, reefs can form. Without urchins, macroalgae would
systematically replace corals.

Polychaetes (Hermodice), gastropods and echinoderms (starfish and even some urchins) prey on corals. If
not controlled, these stars (Acanthaster Planci in the Pacific and Indian Oceans) and urchins (Eucidaris in
the Caribbean) can destroy these environments.

The fishes of these zones are very variegated: there are many herbivores (Siganidae, Scaridae,
Pomacentridae) which contribute to the control of the vegetal biomass, coral predators
(Chaetodontidae, Balistidae, Tetraedontidae), predators of other invertebrates and other fishes. The
shapes and colours of these fishes are incredibly varied.

The coexistence of so many species is due to several abiotic factors such as chemical and physical
stability and structural diversity. In addition, various adaptations of the organisms are important,
including mimicry, many symbiotic cleaning associations (small fish or shrimps feeding on the
parasites of larger fish), schooling and shoaling, commensalism and epizooticism (close associations
of small crustaceans or echinoderms associated with corals, feeding on coral waste or discards).

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IMPORTANCE AND ALTERATIONS CORAL REEFS:
These environments are important for various reasons including :
1. High production and biological diversity
3. Influence on the chemical balance of the oceans
4. High secondary production (fishing)
5. Aesthetic value
6. Coastal protection
7. Role in the economy (tourism)
Natural causes of alteration :
1. Intense weather events such as storms or tsunamis
2. Diseases, stress makes corals more susceptible to infection
3. Predation by gastropods, crabs and fish species

Anthropogenic causes of alteration :

1. Coastal cementing and sedimentation processes (urbanisation, alteration of the
coastline,deforestation).
2. Inputs of nutrients, pollutants and chemical contaminants.
In addition, an increase in human inputof nutrients favours the larval forms of stars which will have more
nutrients with which togrow and develop.
3. Trawling and the use of explosives and poisons.
4. Unsustainable management and tourism (removal of organisms, habitat destruction, etc.).
5. Climate change, which is particularly noticeable in these very stable areas (variation in
thetemperature, salinity and sea level).

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BLEACHING:

Bleaching was observed as early as 1870. Since 1983 a phenomenon has been observed: mass bleaching.
Bleaching is a natural phenomenon. What concerns us is an increase in mass bleaching of large areas of
corals in a short period of time. Stresses that can cause bleaching include pollution or rising
temperatures. High light intensity and low salinity can contribute to bleaching. Continuous stress can
lead to death.
Bleaching has been correlated with El Niño events that create warm water currents and with global
warming.
Dead corals are often covered with algae after bleaching. With the death of corals comes a functional
and structural loss. Bleaching may be reversible, however.

THREAT TO CORALS:
A voracious predator of corals is Acanthaster Planci (clearly Toxapex), a multi-armed starfish capable of
swallowing up to 10square metres of coral.
Their density has increased in recent years. In
some cases, positive feedback systems may form:
stars are effected by abiotic control or by
predators in the larval stages of the stars (when
they are most vulnerable). The corals themselves
can feed on them, but the destruction of the
corals by anthropogenic factors has led to less
predation activity by the corals on the stars,
which increase in number and will feed on more
corals that will have less predation activity etc.,
generating a loop that increases the number of
starfish. In addition, an increase in human input
of nutrients favours the larval forms of stars
which will have more nutrients with which to
grow and develop.

135
 DEEP SEA ENVIRONMENTS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
We have talked about coastal areas, now let's turn to the deep sea. What is above 200 metres is coastal
environment, what is below is Deep Sea. It is the largest habitat on the planet, in fact 90% of the oceans
are deeper than 3000 metres. It is an environment that is little known because of our human and
instrumentation limitations, and special instruments are needed for sampling. Studies of this part of the
sea have only recently increased due to new technologies such as submarines with photographic
equipment.

Quick reminder on benthic domain zones :

1. Batiale (2000-3000 m).
2. Abyssal (3000-6000 m) : abyssal plain located in the middle of the oceans where the ridges or
oceanic ridges (zone of formation of the oceanic crust with intense volcanic activity).
3. Adale (6-10 km): this is the area of the oceanic trenches, the deepest point being the bottom of the
Adale Trench.
Marianne (10,912 m.)

TOPOGRAPHY
The topography of the deep environments is very peculiar, they are not monotonous areas with muddy or
homogeneous expanses, but they are very heterogeneous environments, where we can find mountains,
plains, oceanic ridges (mountains that cross the central zone of the entire Atlantic Ocean), canyons and
so on. Advanced instruments allow us to reconstruct deep environments in 3D.

Physical and chemical variables in the seabed behave as follows :

1. Salinity decreases as you descend from the surface and after 2000 metres is constant, about PSU.34,8
2. The temperature is low and constant. Below the 2000 metres it varies from 14°C, in extreme areas
suchas
Antarctica reaches -1.9°C, without freezing due to salinity. In enclosed seas temperatures remain
higher, for example in the Mediterranean below metres4000 it does not fall below 13-14°C.
3. Oxygen at depth is low and constant, state metres2000 reach 4-5 ml/L conditions which
would be anoxia on the surface.
4. There is no light, and therefore no photosynthesising organisms. Phenomena of
bioluminescence (for searching for food, escape from predators and recognition for reproductive
purposes).
5. Hydrostatic pressure increases with 1every metre10 of atmosphere, so the abyssal plains that touch the
5000 metres will have pressures of atmospheres.500

Despite these low values, we should not think of the deep ocean as hostile. Biodiversity is not as low as
you might think because these areas have incredibly stable conditions, and as we have seen in coral
zones this leads to a good level of biodiversity. The organisms here are very well adapted to these
conditions that for us surface dwellers might see as inhospitable.

136
The substrate can be mobile in mudflats deposited over millennia, which can be up to metres1000 thick,
but also hard in mountainous areas.
In the highly productive areas on the surface where plankton and thus calcareous (foraminifera and
coccolithophoridae) and siliceous (diatoms and radiolarians) shells abound, biogenic sediments will
accumulate in the deep areas below.
In poorly productive areas the sediments will be predominantly clayey and therefore inorganic, and will
also prevail in areas where limestone dissolves.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Organisms in these areas have adapted in various ways:
1. Due to the lack of light, many organisms have developed bioluminescence through enzymes or
symbiosis. with bacteria.
2. The eyes are very large to catch more light
possible (auxiliary photophores are often
present), but often the organisms are almost
completely blind.
3. Other sense organs tend to develop
such as the sense of smell, and to omit organs
such as the swim bladder.
4. They are often flaccid or skeletal organisms,
with a transparent body or dark and silvery to
escape predators by blending into the
darkness.
5. To take advantage of every meal they can
obtain, they possess expandable stomachs with
large mouths and affilated teeth. There is little
nourishment and so every opportunity to feed
must be taken.
Organisms that are not predators, on the other
hand, feed on detritus from the surface areas.

The benthos is rich in filtering species that wait for nourishment from above. They are decapods, sea
stars, sponges.
On mobile substrates, one of the adaptations is to avoid affoxification. Sediments here are often fine and
care must be taken not to be soffocated by them. The forms of sessile organisms are therefore columnar
to minimise contact with the substrate, and to avoid harder structures.

The two graphs on the left show the depth in the lower abscissa, the biomass in the right-hand graph and
the number of individuals in the left-hand graph. These two graphs show how these two values drop
exponentially in the surface areas, and then linearly as they go down in depth.
In the graph at the bottom right, we see the relationship between increasing depth and increasing size of
organisms. They are very long-lived organisms, with low and slow growth, but with long periods of time
they can reach gigantism compared to their surface relatives.

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The characteristics of the trophic nets in these areas are as follows :
1. Primary production is almost absent due to the lack of light and therefore of photosynthesis. The only
indigenous production is chemosynthesis effected around oceanic ridges.
2. Without primary production on site, we can define the system as allochthonous, since it depends on the
organic matter formed in the euphotic state.
3. Debris from above takes weeks to reach the depths, and is often intercepted by
nectonic filtering organisms. As a result, only 4-5% of the sediment reaches the deep substrate. There
is therefore a scarcity of food and a lack of biomass of benthic fauna.

There are coral reefs in the deep environment, which are

different from those on the surface. Deep-sea corals can grow
from metres 50to 6,000 metres deep, are devoid of zooxanthellae
due to the lack of light and have very low growth rates. These
abyssal anthozoans are globally distributed and increase the
biodiversity of the substrate. They are important for
palaeoclimatic studies even though they are poorly studied
environments.

We are still uncertain about the overall ecological role and biodiversity in these areas.
Deep-sea fauna transfers organic matter produced in the euphotic zone to the seabed.
Bento-pelagic coupling and high biodiversity.
It is an interesting ecosystem for the adaptations of organisms can be exploited to obtain substances for
use in the pharmaceutical field (such as antibiotics, pesticides, or anti-cancer agents).

ALTERATION FACTORS
To highlight how delicate this environment is, the list is quite long this time...

Ballast water from boats:

1. They can introduce new and possibly invasive species
2. Redistribution of species
3. To overcome this problem, ballast water could be de-oxygenated using nitrogen for
eliminate possible organisms present
The increase in carbon dioxide and the acidification of the oceans :
4. Reduction in the availability of carbonates for foraminifera and coccolithophoridae to build their own
calcareous shells
5. Changes in pH are not tolerated by organisms in general, but in these deep areas
particularly stable are even less so
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Navigation :
1. Noise from ships can disturb these environments
2. The dyes and paints with which ships are coated can be harmful to organisms, as they
toxic or cause imposex (see the pdf on crustaceans).
Climate change :
1. Changes in the geographical distribution of planktonic and nectonic organisms
2. Changes in biodiversity levels
3. Variations in the larval development of organisms
4. Changes in currents, including deep currents
5. Variation in quality and quantity of primary production

Climate change, with its warming of the oceans, may in the future reach deep areas, moving warm
isotherms further and further down. Deep zones are very constant and even a small change in T could
cause major damage to this ecosystem.
Fishing :
1. Impact on the seabed due to trawling, which can destroy or damage benthic organisms.
2. Generally up to metres1500, but impact can also occur at depths of perhaps (long life cycle species
and late reproduction).
3. Influence on top-down controls, fished species feed on noctmeral migrants no longer exercising
direct control.
Aquaculture :
1. Potential impacts on deep-sea fauna for finding food sources.
Other human activities :
2. Industrial activities that have an impact on the muddy bottom by re-suspension.
3. Deep mining on manganese nodules and sulphide deposits.
4. Offshore drilling (up to meters2000) has a strong impact on the seabed and
release contaminants (e.g. PAHs).
5. Chemical pollution and excessive sediment accumulation

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SICILY'S TRANSITION AREAS, STATE OF THE ART AND FUTURE
DEVELOPMENTS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
In Messina we find the lakes of Capo Peloro, also in the province we find the small lakes of Oliveri-
Tindari. In Oliveri there is the Stagno di Lingua. In Catania there are the Salatelle di Catania, on the
southern side of Catania there are many wetlands used in the past as salt pans that are now in a state of
decay. Even further south are the Vendicari Marshes, as on the southern tip of Sicily. On the extreme
western coast of Sicily in the province of Trapani there are the salt marshes of Trapani, the Stagnone of
Marsala and the marshes of Capo Feto and the Margi (salt marsh areas).

All these areas fall into various types of those studied. In the Messina area, the two Capo Pelorio lakes
are considered brackish lakes, while the Oliveri-Tindari lakes are two ponds. The Stagnone of Marsala has
no freshwater input, and is a hyper-aline environment, and is classified as a lagoon-like arm of the sea.
As salt marsh there are Capo Feto and the Margi. The areas of south-western Sicily are areas of marshes
that can go dry in summer.

At legislative level the term transition area is defined as a body of surface water near the mouth of a river,
which is partly saline in nature due to its proximity to coastal waters, but substantially influenced by
freshwater flows. Included in this definition are deltas, estuaries, lagoons, brackish lakes and coastal
ponds. Consequently from a legislative point of view only the Capo Peloro lakes, the Laghetti di Oliveri-
Tindari and the Stagno di Lingua are transition areas.

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 VOCATIONS OF USE
Over the years, these areas have been used to support local economies in various ways.
1. Traditionally, the lakes of Messina have been used since ancient times for the cultivation of bivalves, and
for the
their housing, i.e. keeping them in particularly clear areas for cleaning before sale.
2. Aquaculture in the Trapani area
Extensive fishing of sea bass, gilthead
seabream, mugilidae and bream was carried
out in the outermost tanks of the salt marsh
areas.
3. Saliculture is still practiced today in the
Trapani. Salt in historical times had an
enormous commercial value because it was
the only way to preserve food, and its
production gave great commercial prestige
to Sicily.
4. Many of these areas are important for
archaeology, because they are close to
ancient cities. For research and tourism
purposes, therefore, these areas are very
important.
5. These are almost all protected areas,
as nature reserves.
6. Artisanal and recreational mullet fishing,
moray eels, mackerel and sole.

These areas are subject to strong anthropogenic pressure due to their proximity to cities (urbanisation
and squatting), intense tourist pressure, intensive bivalve and sericulture agriculture, pollution and
illegal spills from nearby industries.

LAKES OF CAPE PELORO

They are two brackish lakes, the deepest area is anoxic,
salinity similar to that of the sea. They are subject to
various protection regimes. There is a lot of historical
evidence, dating back to Roman times, even before that
there was another lake.
The most circular lake has two channels with which it
communicates with the sea and one with which it
communicates with the second lake, the channels are
cemented.
In Lighthouse Lake there is mussel farming, a large mass
of seagrasses and sandy sediments.
Lake Ganzirri is often used for sports such as canoeing.

OLIVERI TINDARI LAKES

There is a legend that the lakes were created by a miracle of the Madonna. They
are under SCI and RNO protection.
They are two ponds formed by littoral arrows ofsedimentation, and should have formed 150 years ago. The
average depth is a few metres, and the salinity is slightly higher than the sea level,especially in the inner
ponds. The water in the inner ponds is very green due to the high presence of plankton due to the high presence
of organic material, especially guano produced by a colony of seagulls that accumulates on the cliffs, which are
carried down with the rainwater.

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In one of the ponds there is an invasive seagrass.
Over the years10 the inner ponds have been maintained and two outer ponds have been joined. It
is a very beautiful landscape area with a beautiful beach.
On the inner slope on a cliff there is a sanctuary.

TONGUE POND
A small pond on the island of Salina in the Aeolian archipelago, it is a SCI, SPA, IBA and RNO.
It is surrounded by cultivations and there is a lighthouse at the tip. Recently its waters have been
improved by diverting sewage.

SALATELLE OF CATANIA
They are created by the Simeto river, at the foot of Mount
Etna. It is a very unstable, depressed and lacustrine area,
with typical low salt marsh vegetation.

AUGUSTA BOGS
It is a highly industrialised and degraded area for
industry. In the bay of Augusta there used to be a
large expanse of posidonia with matte, which has
now disappeared.
Despite the presence of degradation, they are
subject to SCI and SPA protection, although
protecting a degraded area is not really smart.
In the past, the ponds were used as salt pans but are
now in a state of neglect and pollution, with a high
tendency for malformations and childhood cancers
in children and fish (high levels of mercury
throughout the bay which spread throughout the
Mediterranean). Despite this, birds still tend to use
and frequent these areas like ???.

PRIOLO MARSHES
We are on the other side of Augusta Bay. They are quagmires and ancient salt pans with pools of water of
varying depth and extent, but they are very close to an industrial plant.
It has almost the same characteristics as the quagmires of Augusta, so yay for the earth.

SYRACUSE PANTS
Near the river Ciane, there are marshes and salt pans. It is
an area in the middle of the bay of Syracuse, with
abandoned salt marshes, covered with brackish vegetation,
with somewhat more natural conditions.

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PONDS OF VENDICARI
It is a more settled and well-planned area under various protection
regimes. There are 3 shallow marshes which often dry out in
summer. Salinity depends on rain, salt marsh fauna and flora,
developed dunes.
The setting is in good condition, it is very famous among
birdwatchers for its birdlife. The beach is very well used and really
mama mia, very cute.

SOUTH-EASTERN SICILY BOGS

At the southern end of Sicily there are several marshes. Here there is a lot of protection. They are poorly
studied and often in great deterioration because it is an area of heavy urbanisation, intensive cultivation
and greenhouses.

MARSHLANDS OF CAPE FETUS AND MARGI

A fairly natural context, they are depressions characterised by
more or less frequent flooding, with classic vegetation. On the
sea side there are wide beaches on which dead leaves
accumulate.
At Cape Feto there is a beach with a posidonia meadow in front
and a marshy area inland. It is a relatively well-preserved area.

STAGNONE OF MARSALA
It is an area of rising popularity, and as a result is very well
researched with a large list of protection schemes.
It is a slightly separated piece of sea, the waters are not
very productive and there is a thick vegetation on the
substrate because of this transparency with a carpet of
Cymodoce with associated organisms. There are also patches
of Posidonia around the islands of Mozia and Santa Maria.
In the interior and on the tongue of land there are still well-
preserved areas of salt marsh in use, with mills and
embankments still in good condition. In the southern mouth
the posidonia forms almost affiorant structures which together
with the matte acts as a shield from wave motion.
The long island is partially artificial. We have evidence
from the past that there used to be three islands, but during
the construction of the salt pans the islands3 were joined
together.

SALTWORKS OF TRAPANI
Very anthropic areas, but still well preserved because
they are still in use. Anyway, you know them, here is a
diagram of the typical structure of a saltpan with the
various tanks.

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