What is Biomass ?

● Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living organisms,
such as plants and animals.
● Biomass continues to be an important fuel in many countries, especially for cooking and
heating in developing countries.
● Biomass contains stored chemical energy from the sun. Plants produce biomass through
photosynthesis.

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Biomass Sources for Energy

● Wood and wood processing wastes - firewood, wood pellets, and wood chips, lumber
and furniture mill sawdust and waste, and black liquor from pulp and paper mills
● Agricultural crops and waste materials - corn, soybeans, sugar cane, switchgrass,
woody plants, and algae, and crop and food processing residues, mostly to produce
biofuels
● Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste - paper, cotton, and wool products, and
food, yard, and wood wastes
● Animal manure and human sewage - for producing biogas/renewable natural gas

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Converting Biomass to Energy

Converting Biomass to energy can be done through various processes-

1. Direct combustion - All biomass can be burned directly for heating buildings and water,
for industrial process heat, and for generating electricity in steam turbines.
2. Thermochemical conversion of biomass includes pyrolysis and gasification. Both are
thermal decomposition processes in which biomass feedstock materials are heated in
closed, pressurized vessels called gasifiers at high temperatures. They mainly differ in the
process temperatures and amount of oxygen present during the conversion process.
3. A chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting
vegetable oils, animal fats, and greases into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which are
used to produce biodiesel
4. Biological conversion includes fermentation to convert biomass into ethanol and
anaerobic digestion to produce renewable natural gas. Renewable natural gas—also
called biogas or biomethane—is produced in anaerobic digesters at sewage treatment
plants and at dairy and livestock operations. It also forms in and may be captured from
solid waste landfills.

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Advantages of Biomass Energy

● Biomass is always and widely available as a renewable source of energy.

● It is carbon neutral.
● It reduces the over-reliance of fossil fuels.
● Is less expensive than fossil fuels.
● Less garbage in landfills.

Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

● Biomass energy is not as efficient as fossil fuels

● It is not entirely clean
● Can lead to deforestation.
● Biomass plants require a lot of space.

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World Production of Biomass

World Consumption of Biomass

7
Potential of Biomass

● As per a recent study sponsored by MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy), the
current availability of biomass in India is estimated at about 750 million metric tonnes
per year.
● The Ministry has been implementing a biomass power/cogeneration programme since the
mid-nineties. Over 800 biomass power and bagasse/Non-bagasse cogeneration
projects aggregating to 10205.61 MW capacity have been installed in the country for
feeding power to the grid.
● States which have taken leadership positions in implementation of bagasse cogeneration
projects are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
The leading States for biomass power projects are Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

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Introduction:

Biomass is a term used to describe any organic material that can be used as a fuel
source. This includes plants, trees, crops, and even waste materials such as
agricultural residue, wood chips, and municipal solid waste. Biomass is considered
a renewable energy source because it can be replenished relatively quickly through
the growth of new plants and trees.

Biomass can be converted into a variety of energy forms, including heat,

electricity, and biofuels. Biomass can be burned directly in boilers to produce heat,
or it can be converted into a gas or liquid fuel through a process called
thermochemical conversion. These biofuels can be used in vehicles or power
generators, and they can also be used as feedstocks for the production of chemicals
and other materials. Additionally, Biomass can also be converted into electricity
through direct combustion or by converting the biomass into a gas or liquid fuel,
which can then be used in a generator.

Abstract:

Biomass is a renewable energy source that can be used to generate heat, electricity,
and biofuels. It is made up of organic materials such as plants, trees, crops, and
waste materials. The use of biomass as a fuel source has the potential to reduce
dependence on fossil fuels and lower greenhouse gas emissions. However, there
are also challenges associated with the use of biomass, including the need for large
amounts of land and water to grow crops for biofuels and the potential for
competition with food production. This report provides an overview of the types of
biomass and their characteristics, methods of conversion, economic and
environmental benefits, challenges and drawbacks, and current and future trends in
the use of biomass as a fuel source. It also concludes with recommendations for
further research and development in the field of biomass.

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Biomass Conversion Process:

Thermochemical conversion is a method of converting biomass into a gas or liquid fuel through
the application of heat and chemicals. It involves breaking down the biomass into its component
parts through processes such as pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. The resulting biofuels
can be used in vehicles or power generators, and they can also be used as feedstocks for the
production of chemicals and other materials.

Biochemical conversion is a method of converting biomass into fuels and chemicals through the
use of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The microorganisms break down the biomass
into simpler compounds, which can then be used to produce biofuels such as ethanol and bio-oil.
Biochemical conversion also includes fermentation process to produce ethanol.

In summary, thermochemical conversion and biochemical conversion are methods of converting

biomass into liquid and gaseous biofuels, while direct combustion is a method of converting
biomass into heat energy.

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Thermal-chemical Conversion:

In Thermal-chemical conversion, energy is produced by applying heat and chemical processes.

There are Four thermal chemical processes.

1. Combustion
● The process of combustion is a widely applied biomass conversion technology .
● It is widely applied even today for burning of wood and agricultural residues to
make pot fires and stoves in order to provide heat and light energy for cooking
and heating.
● The amount of heat energy released during the process depends on feedstock
energy content

2. Pyrolysis:
● Biomass is heated in the absence of оxygen to produce carbon rich residue called
Charcoal
● It's chemical composition is changed by heating Temp range - 170°C to 500°C

3. Gasification:
● Biomass is heated in a limited amount of oxygen which gives a gaseous fuel
Known as producer gas.
● Producer gas is a mixture of hydrogen (15-20%) , Carbon monoxide (10-20%)
Methane (1-5%), co2 (9-12%) and nitrogen (45-50%)

4. Liquefaction:
● The gas produced through various processes is purified and converted to liquid
fuel Called Methanol (CH3OH).

Biochemical Processes:

Biochemical conversion uses enzymes produced by bacteria and other living organisms to
transform biomass into fuels through processes such as anaerobic digestion and fermentation.

These processes involve the breakdown of biomass using chemical reactions catalyzed by
enzymes, resulting in the production of fuels like biogas, alcohol, and acids.

Biochemical conversion is a useful way to produce renewable energy and reduce waste, but it
can also have potential environmental impacts.

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Anaerobic digestion:

Anaerobic digestion is a type of biochemical conversion that uses microorganisms to break down
organic material in the absence of oxygen. The process is commonly used to treat and stabilize
municipal and industrial waste, as well as agricultural waste, such as manure and crop residues.

The anaerobic digestion process can be divided into four stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis,
acetogenesis, and methanogenesis. In the hydrolysis stage, complex organic molecules are
broken down into simpler compounds by enzymes secreted by the microorganisms. In the
acidogenesis stage, these simpler compounds are further broken down into volatile fatty acids
and alcohols. In the acetogenesis stage, the volatile fatty acids are converted into acetic acid and
hydrogen gas. In the final methanogenesis stage, the acetic acid and hydrogen gas are converted
into methane (biogas) by methanogenic microorganisms.

The end product of anaerobic digestion is biogas, which is a mixture of methane and carbon
dioxide. Biogas can be used as a fuel source for heating, electricity generation, and
transportation. The remaining solid material, called digestate, can be used as a fertilizer or soil
conditioner.

Anaerobic digestion has several benefits including reduction in waste volume, reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions, pathogen reduction, and production of renewable energy. The process
also improves the water and air quality. However, the process requires careful management, as
the process can be slowed or stopped by changes in temperature, pH, or the presence of
pollutants.

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Fermentation:

Fermentation is a type of biochemical conversion in which microorganisms, such as yeast and

bacteria, convert sugars and other organic compounds into energy and other products. The
process typically takes place in the absence of oxygen and involves the conversion of sugars into
ethanol and carbon dioxide through the action of enzymes.

Fermentation is used in the production of various food and beverage products, such as beer,
wine, cheese, yogurt, and bread, as well as in the production of industrial products like biofuels,
such as ethanol, and various organic acids. In the case of biofuels, sugar or starch-based
feedstock is fermented to produce ethanol, which can be used as a fuel for transportation.

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Economic and environmental benefits of using biomass
Using biomass as a fuel source can bring several economic and environmental benefits:

Economic benefits:
● Biomass is a renewable energy source that can be replenished relatively quickly through
the growth of new plants and trees. This can reduce dependence on finite fossil fuels and
decrease the country's dependence on foreign oil
● Biomass can be used to generate heat, electricity, and biofuels, providing a versatile
source of energy that can be used in a variety of applications.
● Biomass can also be used to produce chemicals, materials, and other products, creating
new economic opportunities

Environmental benefits:
● Biomass is considered a carbon-neutral energy source because the carbon dioxide emitted
when it is burned is roughly equal to the amount absorbed by the plants and trees during
their growth.
● Biomass can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil fuels and
reducing the need for electricity from carbon-emitting power plants.
● Biomass can also help to reduce waste by using materials such as agricultural residue and
municipal solid waste as a fuel source.
● Biomass can help to reduce pollution by reducing the need for transportation and
extraction of fossil fuels

It's worth noting that the environmental benefits of biomass are dependent on the type of
feedstock used and the conversion method applied. The sustainability of the feedstock, the
carbon footprint of the conversion method and the land use change must also be considered

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Key difference:

Anaerobic digestion Fermentation

Type of organic matter Involves the breakdown of complex Involves the breakdown of sugars or
organic matter, such as food waste, other simple organic molecules to
agricultural residues, or sewage, to produce a range of products, such as
produce biogas. ethanol, lactic acid, or acetic acid.

Microorganisms involved Is carried out by a consortium of Is carried out by yeasts or bacteria.

microorganisms, including bacteria,
archaea, and fungi.

Products produced Main product of anaerobic digestion Main product of fermentation is a

is biogas, which is a mixture of chemical or compound, such as
methane and carbon dioxide ethanol or lactic acid

Applications Is primarily used for the treatment of Is used in a wide range of

organic waste and the production of applications, including the production
renewable energy of food and beverages,
pharmaceuticals, and chemicals

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Advantages and disadvantages of Biochemical processes

Advantages:

1. Efficiency: Biochemical processes are often highly efficient and can produce specific
products with a high degree of accuracy and control.
2. Versatility: Biochemical processes can be used to produce a wide range of products,
including drugs, food, and industrial chemicals.
3. Sustainability: Many biochemical processes use renewable resources as raw materials,
which can be more sustainable than processes that rely on nonrenewable resources.
4. Selectivity: Biochemical processes can often produce specific products with a high
degree of selectivity, which can be important for the production of certain chemicals or
drugs.

Disadvantages:

1. Complexity: Biochemical processes can be complex and require precise conditions in

order to be successful.
2. Cost: Biochemical processes can be expensive to set up and operate, especially when
compared to more traditional chemical processes.
3. Scalability: Some biochemical processes may be difficult to scale up to meet industrial
production needs.
4. Reliability: Biochemical processes can be affected by changes in temperature, pH, and
other factors, which can affect their reliability and consistency

Current and future trends in the use of biomass:

1. Research and Development: There is ongoing research and development in the field of
biomass to improve the efficiency and sustainability of biomass conversion technologies.
For example, researchers are working to develop more efficient and cost-effective
methods of converting biomass into biofuels, such as using algae as a feedstock and
genetic engineering to improve the properties of feedstocks.

2. Advanced conversion technologies: There is also a growing interest in advanced

conversion technologies such as torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification. These
technologies can convert biomass into a more energy-dense and easily transportable
form, making it more feasible to use in power generation and other applications.

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3. Policy and regulatory environment: Governments and international organizations are
implementing policies and regulations to promote the use of biomass as a fuel source.
This includes the use of biofuels in transportation, the implementation of Renewable
Portfolio Standards (RPS) which set targets for the amount of renewable energy that
should be generated and incentives for the development of biomass-based power
generation.

4. Scaling up the use of biomass: With the growing demand for renewable energy, there is
an increasing effort to scale up the use of biomass as a fuel source. This includes the
development of large-scale biofuel production facilities and the expansion of existing
biomass power generation plants.

5. Biomass co-firing with coal: Biomass co-firing is a technique where biomass is mixed
with coal and both are burned together. This technique is being increasingly used to
reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of coal-fired power plants.

6. Biorefineries: Biorefineries are facilities that convert biomass into a variety of products,
including biofuels, chemicals, and materials. With the growth of the bioeconomy, there is
an increasing interest in the development of biorefineries to produce a range of products
from the same feedstock.

7. It's worth noting that these trends are constantly evolving and changing. For example, the
recent trend of low carbon hydrogen production is being seen as a promising alternative
to biofuels.

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CONCLUSION:

Biomass energy in high-rise buildings can contribute up to 5% of the building's energy demand,
and can be similar to the energy produced by photovoltaic modules. Biomass energy can also be
about half the energy produced by wind energy.

Optimizing biomass waste to energy conversion systems can increase cost savings and maximize
revenue. It is important to ensure that the biomass fuel is sustainably sourced and replanted to
maintain carbon neutrality and future fuel stock replenishment. It is recommended to limit
transportation distance for biomass fuel to 50km for cost-effectiveness.

REFERENCES:

1. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/biomass/
2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemical-engineering/biomass-conversion
3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermochemical-conversion
4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/biochemical-conversion

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 INTRODUCTION :

The global energy demand is growing rapidly, and about 88% of this demand is met at present time by fossil
fuels. Scenarios have shown that the energy demand will increase during this century by a factor of two or three.
At the same time, concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere are rising rapidly, with fossil
fuel-derived CO2 emissions being the most important contributor. In order to minimize related global warming
and climate change impacts, GHG emissions must be reduced.

In this context, biogas from wastes, residues, and energy crops will play a vital role in future. Biogas is a versatile
renewable energy source, which can be used for replacement of fossil fuels in power and heat production, and it
can be used also as gaseous vehicle fuel. Methane-rich biogas (biomethane) can replace also natural gas as a
feedstock for producing chemicals and materials.

What is Biogas?

Biogas is the product when organic materials (plant and animal products) are broken down by bacteria in an
oxygen-free environment, a process called anaerobic digestion. Biogas systems use anaerobic digestion to recycle
these organic materials, turning them into biogas, which contains both energy (gas), and valuable soil products
(liquids and solids).

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

How is biogas produced?

Biogas is produced when bacteria digest organic matter (biomass) in the absence of oxygen. This process is called
anaerobic digestion. It occurs naturally anywhere from the within the digestive system to the depth of effluent
ponds and can be reproduced artificially in engineered containers called digesters.

There are 2 main types of anaerobic digesters:

 Covered effluent ponds for liquid waste, where biogas accumulates under an impermeable cover and is
piped for processing.

 Engineered digesters for semi-liquid wastes, like fermentation tanks, where the waste is mixed and the
digestion process can be controlled by heating or cooling, or by adding bacterial mix to enhance the
degradation process.

During digestion, 30-60% of the digestible solids are converted into biogas.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

What does biogas contain?

On average, biogas contains:

 55-80% methane (CH4)

 20-40% carbon dioxide (CO2).

 trace gases, including toxic hydrogen sulphide and nitrous oxide.

Methane gas is particularly important as its high energy content can be used to produce energy. Methane has 21
times the power of carbon dioxide to contribute to climate change. Rather than letting methane from natural
putrefaction escape into the atmosphere, it makes sense to capture it and burn it. Combustion transforms methane
into heat and carbon dioxide. In doing so, you can harvest the energy content of the gas and reduce the impact on
climate change.

Advantages of Biogas:

1. Biogas is Eco-Friendly.

Biogas is a renewable, as well as a clean, source of energy. Gas generated through bio digestion is non-polluting;
it actually reduces greenhouse emissions (i.e. reduces the greenhouse effect). No combustion takes place in the
process, meaning there is zero emission of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere; therefore, using gas from waste
as a form of energy is a great way to combat global warming.

4
 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

2. Biogas Generation Reduces Soil and Water Pollution.

Overflowing landfills don’t only spread foul smells- they also allow toxic liquids to drain into underground water
sources. Subsequently, another advantage of biogas is that biogas generation may improve water quality.
Moreover, anaerobic digestion deactivates pathogens and parasites; thus, it’s also quite effective in reducing the
incidence of waterborne diseases. Similarly, waste collection and management significantly improve in areas with
biogas plants. This in turn, leads to improvements in the environment, sanitation, and hygiene.

3. Biogas Generation Produces Organic Fertilizer.

The by-product of the biogas generation process is enriched organic digestate, which is a perfect supplement to,
or substitute for, chemical fertilizers.

4. it’s a Simple and Low-Cost Technology That Encourages a Circular Economy.

The technology used to produce biogas is quite cheap. It is easy to set up and needs little investment when used
on a small scale. Small biodigesters can be used right at home, utilizing kitchen waste and animal manure. A
household system pays for itself after a while and the materials used for generation are absolutely free. The gas
produced can be used directly for cooking and generation of electricity. This is what allows the cost of biogas
production to be relatively low.

Farms can make use of biogas plants and waste products produced by their livestock every day. The waste
products of one cow can provide enough energy to power a lightbulb for an entire day.

5. Healthy Cooking Alternative for Developing Areas.

5
 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 THE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS:

Anaerobic digestion is a process through which bacteria break down organic matter—such as animal manure,
wastewater biosolids, and food wastes—in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic digestion for biogas production
takes place in a sealed vessel called a reactor, which is designed and constructed in various shapes and sizes
specific to the site and feedstock conditions. These reactors contain complex microbial communities that break
down (or digest) the waste and produce resultant biogas and digestate (the solid and liquid material end-products
of the AD process) which is discharged from the digester.

Multiple organic materials can be combined in one digester, a practice called co-digestion. Co-digested materials
include manure; food waste (i.e., processing, distribution and consumer generated materials); energy crops; crop
residues; and fats, oils, and greases (FOG) from restaurant grease traps, and many other sources. Co-digestion
can increase biogas production from low-yielding or difficult-to-digest organic waste.

6
 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

The microbes responsible for anaerobic digestion are active at two temperature stages. The first is 30 to 35
Centigrade, called the mesophilic range. The second is the thermophilic range which is between 50 and 60
Centigrade. Temperatures falling out of these two ranges are not conducive for methane production.

Based on the 16S rDNA gene cloning-based analysis, the predominant non-methane-forming group
of microorganisms in anaerobic digesters belongs to the phyla Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi,
Bacteriodetes, Synergistetes, and Firmicutes in the domain Bacteria. Similarly, the predominant methane-
forming group of microorganisms belongs to the classes Methanomicrobia, Methanobacteria,
and Thermoplasmata in the domain Archaea.

Anaerobic digestion produces two valuable outputs: biogas and digestate:

1. Biogas is composed of methane (CH4), which is the primary component of natural gas, at a relatively high
percentage (50 to 75 percent), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), water vapor, and trace
amounts of other gases. The energy in biogas can be used like natural gas to provide heat, generate
electricity, and power cooling systems, among other uses. Biogas can also be purified by removing the
inert or low-value constituents (CO2, water, H2S, etc.) to generate renewable natural gas (RNG). This can
be sold and injected into the natural gas distribution system, compressed and used as vehicle fuel.

2. Digestate is the residual material left after the digestion process. It is composed of liquid and solid
portions. These are often separated and handled independently, as each have value that can be realized
with varying degrees of post processing. With appropriate treatment, both the solid and liquid portions of
digestate can be used in many beneficial applications, such as animal bedding (solids), nutrient-rich
fertilizer (liquids and solids), a foundation material for bio-based products (e.g., bioplastics), organic-rich
compost (solids), and/or simply as soil amendment (solids), the latter of which may include the farm
spreading the digestate on the field as fertilizer. Digestate products can be a source of revenue or cost
savings, and are often pursued to increase the financial and net-environmental benefit of an AD/biogas
project.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 BIOGAS PRODCUTION:

It has following parts –

 Mixing tank

 Inlet chamber

 Digester

 Outlet chamber

 Overflow tank

Mixing tank – It is a medium size tank made up of brick and cement at a height. In this tank cow dung, agricultural
waste and other biomass is collected and mixed with water.

Inlet chamber – It is a larger size tank than mixing tank. It is also made up of brick and cement. It connects the
mixing tank to the digester.

Digester – It is the largest chamber of biogas plants where the process of anaerobic fermentation takes place. It
has a valve on the top from where the produced biogas is released according to the requirement.

Outlet Chamber – It is linked to the digester. It collects slurry and manure after fermentation.

Working of biogas plants – Cow dung, dead plants, agricultural waste, food waste etc. various forms of biomass
are mixed with an equal amount of water in the mixing chamber or tank. This mixture is called slurry. Now this
slurry is moved into the digester through the inlet chamber. When the digester is almost half filled with slurry,
the introduction of slurry is stopped. Digester is closed and oxygen is prevented from entering the digester to let
the fermentation process take place actively. pH level in digester should be neutral or seven while temperature
should be 30-35℃ for maximum yield. Now the plant is left unused for about 2 months. During these two months
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter or fermentation takes place. Eubacteria convert organic material into
organic acids, alcohols, acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas. Archaeans produce methane by using acetate
or carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 TYPES OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION SYSTEMS:

Choosing a right biogas digester is a very important while constructing a biogas plant. From the standpoint of
fluid dynamics and structural strength, an egg-shaped vessel is about the best possible solution. This type of
construction, however, is comparatively expensive, therefore, its use is usually restricted to large-scale sewage
treatment plants. The Chinese fixed-dome designs are of similar shape, but less expensive.

Types of Small Scale Digesters:

1. Fixed Dome Biogas Plant:

A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an immovable, rigid gas-holder and
a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The gas is stored in the upper part of the digester.
When gas production commences, the slurry is displaced into the compensating tank. Gas pressure
increases with the volume of gas stored, i.e. with the height difference between the two slurry levels. If
there is little gas in the gas-holder, the gas pressure is low.

2. Floating Drum Plants:

Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester and a moving gas-holder. The gas-holder floats
either directly on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas is collected in the gas
drum, which rises or moves down, according to the amount of gas stored.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

3. Low-Cost Polyethylene Tube Digester:

The Low-Cost Polyethylene Tube Digester model consist of tubular polyethylene film (two coats of 300
microns) bent at each end around a 6 inch PVC drainpipe and is wound with rubber strap of recycled tire-
tubes.

4. Balloon Plants:

A balloon plant consists of a heat-sealed plastic or rubber bag (balloon), combining digester and gas-
holder. The gas is stored in the upper part of the balloon. The inlet and outlet are attached directly to the
skin of the balloon.
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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

5. Earth Pit Plants:

Masonry digesters are not necessary in stable soil (e.g. laterite). It is sufficient to line the pit with a thin
layer of cement (wire-mesh fixed to the pit wall and plastered) in order to prevent seepage. The edge of
the pit is reinforced with a ring of masonry that also serves as anchorage for the gas-holder. The gas-holder
can be made of metal or plastic sheeting. If plastic sheeting is used, it must be attached to a quadratic
wooden frame that extends down into the slurry and is anchored in place to counter its buoyancy. The
requisite gas pressure is achieved by placing weights on the gas-holder. An overflow point in the
peripheral wall serves as the slurry outlet.

Advantages:

 Low cost of installation (as little as 20% of a floating-drum plant).

 high potential for self help approaches.

Disadvantages:

 Short useful life; serviceable only in suitable, impermeable types of soil.

 Earth-pit plants can only be recommended for installation in impermeable soil located above the
groundwater table. Their construction is particularly inexpensive in connection with plastic sheet
gas-holders.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

6. Ferro-Cement Plants:

The ferro-cement type of construction can be applied either as a self-supporting shell or an earth-pit lining.
The vessel is usually cylindrical. Very small plants (Volume under 6 m3) can be prefabricated. As in the
case of a fixed-dome plant, the ferrocement gasholder requires special sealing measures (proven reliability
with cemented-on aluminium foil).

Types of Industrial Digesters:

1. Batch plants: Batch plants are filled and then emptied completely after a fixed retention time. Each design
and each fermentation material is suitable for batch filling, but batch plants require high labor input. As a
major disadvantage, their gas-output is not steady.

2. Continuous plants: Continuous plants are fed and emptied continuously. They empty automatically
through the overflow whenever new material is filled in. Therefore, the substrate must be fluid and
homogeneous. Continuous plants are suitable for rural households as the necessary work fits well into the
daily routine. Gas production is constant, and higher than in batch plants. Today, nearly all biogas plants
are operating on a continuous mode.

3. Semi-Batch plants: If straw and dung are to be digested together, a biogas plant can be operated on a semi-
batch basis. The slowly digested straw-type material is fed in about twice a year as a batch load. The dung
is added and removed regularly.
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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 USES OF BIOGAS :

1. It is commonly used in rural areas as cooking gas.

2. It can be used for the production of electricity.

3. It can be used in instruments used for water heating, space (room) heating etc.

4. It can replace compressed natural gas for use in vehicles.

5. It can displace carbon dioxide in on-site CHP plants.

6. It is being used in transport. For example, ‘Amanda Biogas Train’ runs on biogas in Sweden.

7. Production of biogas produced a very useful dry solid byproduct which is used as manure.

8. It is used in many states for street lighting purposes.

9. It can be used in hydrogen fuel cells as well.

 FACTORS AFFECTING BIOGAS PRODUCTION:

The rate of production of biogas depends on the following factors :

1. Temperature and pressure

2. Solid concentration and loading rate

3. Retention period

4. pH value

5. Nutrients composition

6. Toxic substances

7. Digester size and shape

8. Stirring agitation of the content of digester.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

1. Temperature and pressure:

1. The process of anaerobic fermentation and methane forming bacteria works best in the temperature range
of 25°C-55°C and pressure of about (1.1-1.2) bar absolute. The rate of gas production increases with the
increase in temperature but the percentage of methane reduces.
2. It is found that temperatures 35°C-38°C are best for methane production. If the temperatures are lower
than 20°C (as in case of cold countries and in winters) the rate of gas production falls sharply and it almost
ceases at about 10°C.
3. Thus, in cold climates, it is necessary to heat the digester to about 35°C.

2. Solid concentration and loading rate:

1. The cow dung, water and various organic residues from agricultural waste are supplied as feed to the
digester. The proportions recommended are : b Cow dung+solid waste 1 : 1 by weight and forming to
about 10% of solid content and 90% of water.
2. The amount of feed supply per day to the digester is called loading rate. It is dependent on the size of the
plant.
3. The recommended loading rate is about 0.2 kg/m3 of digester capacity. The underloading and overloading
reduces the biogas production.
4. The loading of feed must be carried out every day at the same time so as to keep the solid concentration
ratio constant in the digester.

3. Retention period:

1. It represents the time period for which the fermentable material remains inside the digester. This period
ranges from 35 days to 50 days depending upon the climatic conditions and location of the digester.
2. The longer retention period needs larger size digester and it allows more complete digestion of feed.

4. pH value or Hydrogen ion concentration :

1. pH value indicates the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH value is represented as the
logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration in gm equivalent per litre of solution.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION
2. pH value in the range 0-7 represents acidic solution and in the range 7-14 indicates the alkaline solution.
In the initial stages of acid forming stage of digestion, the pH value may be around 6 or less, however
during methane formation stage the pH value higher than 7 is maintained since methane formers are
sensitive to acidity.
3. For above reasons the optimum pH value of digester solution between 7 to 8 is recommended for biogas
formation.

5. Nutrients concentration:
1. The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are N2, P, S, C, H2, O2 to accelerate the
anaerobic digestion rate. Thus it is necessary that the major nutrients are supplied in correct chemical form
and concentrations.
2. The carbon in carbohydrates supplies the energy and the nitrogen in proteins is needed for building of
growth of bacteria. C : N ratio need to be supplied in the ratio of 30 : 1 with 2% phosphorous for maximum
biological activity. Thus, for acceleration fermentation and production of biogas nutrients like C, P, N2 are
are needed.. Oil cakes and animal urine are found to be suitable nutrients for this purpose.

6. Toxic substances:

1. The presence of ammonia, pesticides, detergents, heavy metals are considered as toxic substance to micro-
organisms since their presence reduces the fermentation rate. Also the digested slurry if allowed to remain
in digester beyond certain time, it becomes toxic to micro-organism growth.

7. Digester size and shape:

1. It is found that the biogas production per unit volume of digester is high when its diameter to depth ratio
ranges between 0.66 to 1.

8. Stirring or agitation of the content of digester:

1. Since bacteria in the digester has very limited reach to their food, it is necessary that the slurry is properly
mixed and bacteria get their food supply.
2. It is found that occasional mixing allows the masses that float at the top in the form of scum allows to mix
with the deposits at the bottom. It helps in improving the fermentation process.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION

 BIOGAS PRODUCTION IN INDIA:

1. The government of India has several programs in place to promote the adoption of biogas as a source of
energy. The National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NMMP) is the main program that
supports the construction of biogas plants and promotes the use of biogas for cooking and lighting. As of
2021, the NMMP had supported the construction of over 4 million household biogas plants in India.

2. Several states in India have also launched their own biogas promotion programs to encourage the adoption
of biogas as a source of energy. For example, the state of Gujarat has a program called the Gujarat Biogas
Program, which aims to promote the use of biogas for cooking and lighting in rural areas.

3. Biogas production in India has been growing in recent years as the country looks to increase its use of
renewable energy sources and reduce its reliance on fossil fuels. According to the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE), as of 2021, India had a total installed biogas capacity of approximately 6,656
mega watt (MW), with over 4,300 biogas plants in operation. The majority of biogas plants in India are
small-scale, with capacity ranging from 0.5 to 2 MW. However, there are also several large-scale biogas
plants in the country, with capacity up to 50 MW.

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 BIOGAS PRODUCTION
4. The main feedstocks used for biogas production in India are agricultural waste, such as crop residues and
animal manure, and kitchen waste. According to the MNRE, the majority of biogas plants in India use
agricultural waste as their primary feedstock, with kitchen waste being the second most common
feedstock. Other feedstocks that are used in India include energy crops, such as energy grasses, and waste
from the food processing industry.

5. The biogas sector in India has great potential for growth and can play a significant role in the country's
efforts to transition to a more sustainable energy mix. To support the growth of the sector, the government
of India has introduced several incentives and policies, including tax exemptions, capital subsidies, and
feed-in tariffs. The biogas produced in India can be used for a variety of purposes, including electricity
generation, cooking, lighting, and transportation fuel. The majority of biogas plants in India use the gas
for on-site use, such as cooking and lighting,

 CONCLUSION:

Biogas production in the agricultural sector is a very fast growing market and finds increased interest in many
parts of the world. In the next few decades, bioenergy will be the most significant renewable energy source,
because it offers an economical attractive alternative to fossil fuels. The success of biogas production will come
from the availability at low costs and the broad variety of usable forms of biogas for the production of heat, steam,
electricity, and hydrogen and for the utilization as a vehicle fuel. Many sources, such as crops, grasses, leaves,
manure, fruit, and vegetable wastes or algae can be use, and the process can be applied in small and large scales.
This allows the production of biogas at any place in the world.

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 INTRODUCTION

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, is an organic compound with the formula
C2H6O. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic wine-like odour and
pungent taste. Ethanol is naturally produced by the fermentation process of sugar by yeasts or via
petrochemical processes such as ethylene hydration.

Ethanol is used as a chemical solvent, in the synthesis of organic compounds, and as a fuel source.
Historically it was used as a general anesthetic and has modern medical applications as an
antiseptic, disinfectant, solvent for some medications, and antidote for methanol poisoning and
ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol’s flammability in the air is also much lower than that of
gasoline, which reduces the number and severity of vehicle fires.

HISTORY OF ETHANOL

• Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1825 by Michael Faraday. He found that
sulphuric acid could absorb large volumes of coal gas.
• He gave the resulting solution to Henry Hennell, a British chemist, who found in 1826 that
it contained sulphovinic acid (ethyl hydrogen sulphate)
• In 1828 Henry Hennell and the French chemist Georges Simon Serullas independently
discovered that sulphovinic acid could be decomposed into ethanol.
• Thus in 1825 Faraday had unwittingly discovered that ethanol could be produced from
ethylene by acid-catalyzed hydration, a process similar to current industrial ethanol
synthesis.
• Ethanol’s first use was to power an engine in 1826, and in 1876, Nicolaus Otto, the inventor
of the modern four-cycle internal combustion engine, used ethanol to power an early
engine.
• Ethanol was used as a lighting fuel in the 1850s, but its use was curtailed when it was taxed
as liquor to help pay for the Civil War, and its use as a fuel continued after the tax was
repealed.

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• The first ethanol blended with gasoline for use as an octane booster occurred in the 1920s
and 1930s and was in high demand during World War II because of fuel shortages.
• Today’s ethanol industry began in the 1970s when petroleum-based fuel became expensive
and environmental concerns involving leaded gasoline created a need for an octane. Corn
became the predominant feedstock for ethanol production because of its abundance and
ease of transformation into alcohol.
• Federal and state subsidies for ethanol helped to keep the fuel in production which initiated
the “Minnesota Model” for ethanol production, in which farmers began producing ethanol
to add value to their corn. The Minnesota Model was an agreement between local public
and private parties who work to keep profits in the community by providing jobs (and the
economic benefits associated with population) and adding value to agricultural products
while strengthening rural communities.
• Ethanol’s use as an oxygenate to control carbon monoxide emissions encouraged increased
production of the fuel through the decade and into the 1990s.
• The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 signed by President Bush requires
renewable fuel usage to increase to 36 billion gallons annually by 2022. The new
Renewable Fuel Standard which currently guides national ethanol policy states that only
15 billion gallons of production should be produced from corn grain (starch) —the
remaining 22 billion should come from other advanced and cellulosic feedstock sources.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

• It burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light
• Ethanol’s hydroxyl group is able to participate in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more
viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight,
such as propane.
• Ethanol is slightly more refractive than water, having a refractive index of 1.36242
• The triple point for ethanol is 150K at a pressure of 4.3*10-4 Pa.
• Melting Point of ethanol is -114.1°C.
• Boiling Point: 78.37°C

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Reaction with sodium

When ethanol reacts with sodium it gives hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide as the final product.

2Na+2CH3CH2OH—>2CH3CH2O–Na+H2

2. Acid-catalyzed dehydration of ethanol

When ethanol is heard at 443K in presence of excess conc. sulphuric acid then alkene is obtained

CH3CH2OH— conc H2SO4 —>CH2=CH2+H2O

In the above reaction, water is removed using a dehydrating agent called sulphuric acid.

3. Oxidation reaction: Ethanol in the presence of acidified Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

undergoes oxidation forming Ethanal or Acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) and water as products. Then,
Acetaldehyde undergoes further oxidation to form acetic acid or ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)

CH3CH2OH+[O]------->CH3CHO+H2O

4
 CH3CHO+[O]------>CH3COOH

4. Esterification reaction: The chemical reaction of Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) and Ethanol
(C2H5OH) forms the ester that is Ethyl ethanoate(C2H5COOCH3).

CH3COOH+ C2H5OH—>C2H5COOCH3+H2O

5.Dehydrogenation reaction: The process of dehydrogenation occurs when vapors of ethanol

pass over hot copper at 573K. In this reaction, copper is used as a catalyst. Dehydrogenation of
ethanol forms acetaldehyde (CH3CHO).

CH3CH2OH—>CH3CHO+H2

6. Combustion reaction: Ethanol is a volatile and highly inflammable liquid. Carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water are formed when ethanol reacts with oxygen.

C2H5OH+3O2—>2CO2+3H2O+heat

5
 ETHANOL PRODUCTION IN WORLD

The US produces the most ethanol worldwide (55%), primarily from corn. Brazil is the next largest
producer with 27%, primarily from sugarcane. Other countries, including Australia, Columbia,
India, Peru, Cuba, Ethiopia, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe, are also beginning to produce ethanol from
sugarcane.

PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL ON AN INDUSTRIAL SCALE:

On an industrial scale, ethanol is produced by the fermentation of molasses. Molasses is a dark-

colored viscous liquid, left after the crystallization of sugarcane juice. It contains 60% fermentable
sugar.

1. Dilution of molasses: Molasses is first diluted with water in a 1:5 (molasses: water) ratio.

2. Fortification of molasses with ammonium sulphate: If the nitrogen content of molasses is

less, it is fortified with ammonium sulphate to provide an adequate supply of nitrogen to yeast.

3. Addition of sulphuric acid: Fortified solution of molasses is then acidified with a small

6
quantity of sulphuric acid. The addition of acid supports the growth of yeast but doesn’t support
the growth of useless bacteria.

4. Fermentation: The resulting solution is received in a large tank and yeast is added to it at 35℃
and kept for 2-3 days. During this period, enzymes sucrase and zymase which are present in yeast,
convert sugar into ethyl alcohol

C12H22O11 + H2O —>C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

C6H12O6 —>C2H5OH + 2CO2

5. Fractional distillation: Alcohol obtained by fermentation is called ‘wash’, which is about 15%
to 18% pure. By using fractional distillation, it is converted into 92% pure alcohol which is known
as rectified spirit or commercial alcohol.

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 PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL FROM FEEDSTOCK:

MILLING:

• Over 90% of the grain ethanol produced today comes from the dry milling process, with
the remaining coming from wet mills. The main difference between the two is in the initial
treatment of the grain.
• In the dry milling process, the entire grain kernel is first ground into ‘meal’, then slurried
with water to form a ‘mash’. Enzymes are added to the mash to convert starch to sugar.
The mash is cooked, cooled, and then transferred to fermenters. Yeast is added and the
conversion of sugar to alcohol begins.
• In wet milling, the grain is first separated into its basic components through soaking. After
steeping, the slurry is processed through grinders to separate the corn germ. The remaining
fiber, gluten, and starch components are further segregated. The gluten component
(protein) is filtered and dried to produce the animal feed. The remaining starch can then be
fermented into ethanol, using a process similar to the dry milling process.

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LIQUEFACTION:
• Liquefaction is a critical step in the ethanol process setting the stage for fermentation and
the downstream steps that follow.
• As the mash is heated to increase the amount of available soluble starch, the starch granules
absorb water and swell resulting in maximum viscosity(gelatinization) leaching out
amylose and amylopectin.
• Alpha-amylase, a starch-degrading enzyme precisely targets the amylose and amylopectin
breaking down the starch into shorter chains called dextrins (dextrinization).
• The main goals of liquefaction are: reducing viscosity and solubilization of starch.

SACCHARIFICATION:
• Starch molecule pieces are broken down into simple sugar glucose. This reaction is
catalyzed by an enzyme called glucoamylase.
• The mash from the cookers is cooled and the secondary enzyme(glucoamylase) is added to
convert the liquefied starch to fermentable sugars(dextrose).
• Saccharification is a major constraint for bioethanol production due to the high cost of
enzyme production and complications associated with the removal of acid, alkali, and salts
formed after neutralization.

FERMENTATION:
• Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biological process that
converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing
ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products.
• Yeast is added to the mash to ferment the sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Using a
continuous process, the fermenting mash is allowed to flow through several fermenters
until it is fully fermented and leaves the final tank. In a batch process, the mash stays in
one fermenter for about 48 hours before the distillation process is started.
• Yeasts perform this conversion without oxygen, which is why alcoholic fermentation is
considered an anaerobic process.
• Ethanol fermentation is the basis for alcoholic beverages, ethanol fuel, and bread dough
rising.

9
 C6H12O6 —> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

• For the fermentation of ethanol, two types of yeast cells are selected which are
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces calsbergenis.

DISTILLATION AND DEHYDRATION:

• Distillation is a thermal separation method that can be used to fractionate liquid mixtures.
It utilizes the different volatility of the components of the mixture to be separated.
• The fermented mash, now called beer, contains about 10% alcohol along with non-
fermentable solids from corn and yeast cells. The mash is pumped to the continuous flow,
multi-column distillation system where the alcohol is removed from the solids and water.
• The alcohol leaves the top of the final column at about 96% strength, and the residue mash,
called stillage, is transferred from the base of the column to the co-product processing area.
• Dehydration refers to drying (removing residual water) from the ethanol. The alcohol from
the top of the column passes through a dehydration system where the remaining water will
be removed. Most ethanol plants use a molecular sieve to capture the last bit of water in
the ethanol. The alcohol product at this stage is called anhydrous ethanol.

DENATURATION:
• Ethanol that will be used for fuel must be denatured, or made unfit for human
consumption.
• A small amount of gasoline (2-5%) is added to fuel ethanol to make it undrinkable.
• This is done at the ethanol plant.

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 DIFFERENT WAYS OF PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL

First generation: First-generation bio alcohols (bioethanol) are produced via yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) fermentation of plant sugars and starches obtained from crops
such as sugarcane (Saccharum sp.), sugar beet, and corn (Zea mays).

Second generation: Second-generation biofuels are produced from non-food biomass,

such as perennial grass and fast-growing trees.

Third generation: Bioethanol production from third-generation feedstock (3G)

involves algal biomass that is grown in freshwater and wastewater.

Fourth generation: Fourth-generation bioethanol is the amalgamation of genomically

prepared microorganisms and genetically engineered feedstock

ADVANTAGES OF ETHANOL PRODUCTION

• Ethanol is made using sugar(glucose) found in plants. This makes it a renewable source as
it can be grown again.
• The process could be seen as carbon neutral because as the plant grows, it takes in carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis. This, therefore, balances out the carbon dioxide released when
it is fermented.
• High amounts of energy are not needed as sugar is fermented at temperatures of around
35°c to 40°c. Low-cost process because of low temperature.

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• In places such as Brazil, sugar cane is used in this process as it is a starchy material. In
areas such as this, it is beneficial to the economy as it means that there is more employment.

DISADVANTAGES OF ETHANOL PRODUCTION

• Producing plant-based ethanol requires acres of land to be able to fulfill the growing
demand.
• Although ethanol is a renewable and green energy resource, the distillation process uses
heat from fossil fuels and fossil fuels contribute enormously to greenhouse gas emissions.
• Obtaining the final ethanol energy involves a lot of processes including growing,
fermenting, distilling and transportation. The entire process could prove costly, which
would eventually drive up the cost of ethanol fuel. Growing these crops also need a lot of
water, especially in countries that don't receive sufficient rainfall. This will also add up to
the cost of ethanol fuel.

USES OF ETHANOL

• Biofuel: Mixed with petrol or gasoline up to 10% and known as gasohol which is used in
automobiles
• Effective solvent: Widely used in industry as a solvent for dyes, explosives, cosmetics,
etc.
• Disinfectant: Used to clean skin, in lotions as a preservative, and in other pharmaceutical
products
• Ingredient: Principal ingredient in alcoholic beverages like beer, wine, or brandy
• Food additives: Ethanol can help evenly distribute food colorings and enhances the flavor
of food extracts.
• Distillers’ food grains: The gluten component(protein) which is the by-product of the
distillation process in ethanol production, is filtered and dried to produce animal feed.

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