TIME OF SETTING OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT BY VICAT NEEDLE

ASTM C191

Scope

This test method covers the determination of the time of setting of hydraulic
cement by means of the Vicat needle.

References

ASTM C187 Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement

ASTM C305 Mechanical Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes and Mortars of

Plastic Consistency
Apparatus Vicat Apparatus

Vicat apparatus – Consists of a frame, a

movable rod weighing 300 g with a 10 mm
plunger on one end and a 1 mm removable
needle on the other end.

Conical Ring

Glass Plate

Balance – 0.01g resolution.

Timer – 0.5s resolution.

Materials

Hydraulic Cement ~ 650 g.

Water (23°C)

Procedure

1. Mix 650 g of cement with the required amount of clean mixing water to
obtain a paste of normal consistency (C187 & C305).

   a) Place all the mixing water in the mixing bowl.

   b) Add the cement to the water and allow 30 s for the absorption of water.

   c) Start the mixer and mix at slow speed (140 rpm) for 30 s.
   d) Stop the mixer for 15 s; during this rest period scrap down into the batch
any paste that may have collected on the sides of the bowl.

   e) Start the mixer at medium speed (285 rpm) and mix for 1 minute.

Note: Approximately 170 g of mixing water is a good starting point to

determine the normal consistency of the cement.

2. Quickly form the cement paste prepared above into the approximate shape
of a ball with gloved hands. Then toss six times through a free path of about
6 inches from one hand to the other producing a nearly spherical ball shaped
mass.

3. Press the ball, resting in the palm of one hand, into the larger end of the
conical ring held in the other hand, completely filling the ring with paste.
Remove the excess at the larger end by a single movement of the palm of the
hand. Place the ring on its larger end on the glass plate, and slice off the
excess paste on the smaller end at the top of the ring by a single oblique
stroke of a sharp edge trowel. Smooth the top if necessary.

4. Center the paste specimen under the 10 mm end of the Vicat apparatus.
Lower the movable rod until the 10 mm end makes contact with the paste.
Zero the indicator. Release the movable rod. A “normal consistency” is
obtained when the penetration, below the original surface after 30 seconds, is
10 mm +/- 1 mm.

5. Repeat this process, using fresh cement, with varying percentages of water
until the normal consistency is obtained.

6. Prepare a normal consistency paste, using the previously determined

amount of water. Mix and place the paste specimen in the ring using the
procedure outlined in Steps 1 through 3 above.

7. Place the prepared specimen in a moist closet for 30 minutes after molding
without being disturbed.

8. Determine the 30 second penetration using the 1 mm needle at 30 minutes

and every 15 minutes thereafter until a penetration of 25 mm or less is
obtained. All post 30 minute penetrations shall not be made closer than
¼ inch to a previous penetration or closer than ¼ inch to the conical mold.
Place the specimen back in the moist closet between readings. Also, clean the
needle between readings to remove any paste residue. Record the penetration
values and determine the time for 25 mm penetration using interpolation.
This is the initial setting time.

9. Determine the final setting time as the time when the needle does not sink
visibly into the paste.

Report

1) The initial setting time to the nearest 5 minutes.

2) The final setting time to the nearest 5 minutes.

 
 Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

UNIT WEIGHT & VOIDS IN AGGREGATE

ASTM C29

Scope

Test method ASTM C29 covers the determination of unit weight in a

compacted or loose condition and calculated voids in fine, coarse, or
mixed aggregates based on the same determination. This test method
is often used to determine unit weight values that are necessary for
use for many methods of selecting proportions for concrete mixtures.

References

ASTM C127 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

ASTM C128 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate

ASTM C125 Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete

Aggregates

AASHTO T19 Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregates

Terminology

Mass - the quantity of matter in a body.

Weight - the force exerted on a body by gravity.

Unit weight - the weight per unit volume.

Voids in unit volume of aggregate - the space between particles in an

aggregate mass not occupied by solid mineral matter.
Apparatus

Scale (or balance, 0.1 lb (0.05 kg))

Tamping Rod - a round, straight steel rod, 5/8 in. in diameter and

approximately 24 in. in length, having one end rounded to a
hemispherical tip of the same diameter as the rod.

Measure - a cylindrical metal watertight measure (nominal 1/3 ft3 for

coarse aggregate and 1/10 ft 3 for fine aggregate)

Scoop

Materials

Coarse Aggregate - Oven dried at 110°C, then cooled to room

temperature.

Fine Aggregate - Oven dried at 110°C, then cooled to room

temperature.

Note: Sample size should be 125 to 200% of the quantity required to

fill the measure.
Procedure

Measure Calibration

1) Determine weight of dry measure.

2) Fill the measure completely full with water and determine the
weight of measure plus water.

3) Calculate the weight of water by taking the difference between the

measurements obtained in (1) and (2) above.

4) Calculate the volume of the container

V = Ww / γw

where Ww is the weight of water used to fill the container and γw is

the unit weight of water (62.3 lb/ft3 or 998 kg/m3). The computed
volume should be close to the nominal value state in the apparatus
section.

The following loose and compact unit weight procedures are to be

performed on both the coarse and fine aggregates.

Loose Unit Weight (shoveling procedure)

1) Fill the measure to overflowing by means of a scoop, discharging

the aggregate from a height not to exceed 2 in. (50 mm) above the top
of the measure.

2) Level the surface of the aggregate with a straightedge.

3) Determine the weight of the measure plus content, and the weight
of the measure alone, recording values to the nearest 0.1 lb (0.05 kg).

Compact Unit Weight (rodding procedure)

1) Fill the measure one-third full and level the surface with the
fingers.

2) Rod the layer of aggregate with 25 strokes of the tamping rod

evenly distributed over the surface.

3) Add additional aggregate to the measure to the two-thirds full

level, level with the fingers, and rod again with 25 strokes of the
tamping rod.

4) Finally, add additional aggregate to overflowing and rod again

using 25 strokes of the tamping rod.

5) Level the surface of the aggregate with a straightedge.

6) Determine the weight of the measure plus content, and the weight
of the measure alone, recording values to the nearest 0.1 lb (0.05 kg).

Note: When rodding the first layer, do not allow the rod to strike the
bottom of the measure. When rodding the subsequent layers, do not
force the rod into the previous layer of aggregate.

Compact Unit Weights (rodding procedure) of sand and gravel mixtures

(coarse & fine aggregate mixtures)

1) Each group will determine the compact (dry rodded) unit weight
of an assigned sand-gravel mixture.

2) Mix the fine and coarse aggregate in a large mixing pan.

3) Determine the unit weight using the Compact Unit Weight

procedure (steps 1-6) above.

Calculation

1) Calculate the unit weight in both the loose and compact (dense)
conditions for both the fine and coarse aggregates.

γbulk = (G - T) / V
where:

γbulk = unit weight of the aggregate, lb/ft3

G = mass of the aggregate plus the measure, lb

T = mass of the measure, lb

V = volume of the measure, ft3

2) Calculate the void content, n (%), in the aggregate (for fine and
coarse compact unit weights only)

n (%) = [(Gs γw - γbulk)/ Gs γw ](100)

where:

γbulk = unit weight of the aggregate, lb/ft3

Gs = bulk specific gravity, dry basis (from ASTM C127 or C128, as

applicable)

γw = unit weight of water (62.3 lb/ft3 or 998 kg/m3 )

3) Calculate the void content, n (%), for the compact fine-coarse

aggregate combinations as follows

a) n (%) = [(Gcom* γw - γbulk)/ Gcom* γw](100)

where:

b) Gcom = 100/[(C/Gc) + (F/Gf)]

Gcom = the specific gravity of the combined sand-gravel mixture

Gc = the bulk specific gravity of the coarse aggregate

Gf = the bulk specific gravity of the fine aggregate, and

C and F are the fractions (%) of the Coarse and Fine aggregates
comprising the sand-gravel mixture, respectively (the sum of C and F
must equal 100%).

Report

1) Report the loose and dense unit weights for both the fine and
coarse aggregates to the nearest 1 lb/ft3 .

2) Report the results of the void content to the nearest 1% for both the
loose and dense unit weights.

3) Plot class curve of the unit weight vs. % sand.

4) Plot class curve of the void content vs. % sand.

Questions

1) What is the sand-gravel combination which yields maximum

density? Does this also yield lowest void content?

2) Would you recommend measuring quantities of material by

weight or volume? Why?

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF HYDRAULIC CEMENTS

MORTARS

ASTM C109

Scope

This test method covers the determination of the compressive

strength of hydraulic cement mortars using 2-inch (50 mm) cube
specimens.

References

ASTM C109 Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

ASTM C778 Specification for Standard Sand

ASTM C150 Specification for Portland Cement

ASTM C305 Mechanical Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes &

Mortars of Plastic Consistency

ASTM C230 Specification for Flow Table for Use in Tests of

Hydraulic Cements
Apparatus Specimen Molds

Scale (2000 g)

Specimen Molds

Mixer, Mixing Bowl, Mixing

Paddle, & Scraper
Mixer and Mixing Bowl Used
Flow Table and Flow Mold

Tamper

Trowel

Testing Machine, Forney 400 kip

testing machine
Materials

Graded Standard Sand - Natural silica sand, form Ottawa, Illinois,

conforming to the requirements of ASTM Specification C778.

Portland Cement per ASTM C150

Mold Release Agent

Procedure

Download the procedure for Compressive Strength of Cement

Mortars

Download the Excel form for Compressive Strength of Cement

Mortars

Mortar Composition - The proportions of materials for the standard

mortar shall be one part of cement to 2.75 parts of graded standard
sand by weight. Use a water-cement ratio of 0.485 for all portland
cements and 0.460 for all air-entraining portland cements. The water-
cement ratio for other than portland and air-entraining portland
cements shall be such as to produce a flow of 110 +/- 5.
Batch the following, which is sufficient for 6 samples:

Cement, 500g

Sand, 1375g
Wate Portland (w/c=0.485) 242 or
r, g or
(Air-entraining portland
(w/c=0.460) 230
or
Non-portland (As
required for flow of 110))
Specimen Mold Preparation - Apply a thin coating of mold release to
the interior surfaces of the molds and base plates. Wipe surfaces with
a cloth to remove any excess.

Mortar Mixing Procedure (ASTM C305) - Place dry paddle and dry
bowl in the mixing position of the mixer. Introduce the materials into
the bowl in the following manner:

1) Place all the mixing water in the bowl.

2) Add the cement to the water; then start the mixer and mix at slow
speed (140 rpm) for 30 s.

3) Add sand slowly over a 30 s period, while continued mixing at

slow speed.

4) Stop the mixer, change to medium speed (285 rpm), and mix for an
additional 30 s.

5) Stop the mixer and let the mortar stand for 1.5 minutes. During the
first 15 s, quickly scrape down into the batch any mortar that may
have collected on the side of the bowl; then for remainder of the
interval, cover with the lid.

6) Finish mixing for 1 minute at medium speed (285 rpm).

7) Determine flow of mortar as follows:

     a) Wipe table clean and dry and place flow mold at center.

b) Place a layer of mortar about 1 inch thickness in the mold and

tamp 20 times.

     c) Then fill the mold and tamp this second layer 20 times.

     d) Cut mortar flush with top of mold with a trowel, held
perpendicular to the mold, using a sawing motion.

     e) Wipe table around mold clean of all mortar and dry; then
remove mold.

     f) Drop table through ½ inch height 25 times in 15 s.

     g) Use calipers to measure the diameters along the 4 scribed lines
on the table. The sum of the four readings is the flow (the percent
increase in the original diameter). Record this flow value.

8) Following flow test, return all mortar to the mixing bowl. Scrap
down the sides and remix for 15 s at medium speed (285 rpm).

Molding Test Specimens - Start molding within 2 minute and 30 s

after completion of the original mixing of the mortar.

1) Place a layer of mortar about 1 in. (25 mm) (approximately one half

of the depth of the mold) in all of the cube compartments.

Figure 1. Order of Tamping in Molding of Test Specimens.

2) Tamp the mortar in each cube compartment 32 times in about 10 s

in four (4) rounds, each round to be at right angles to the other and
consisting of eight adjoining strokes over the surface of the specimen
(see Figure 1).
3) Fill the compartments with the remaining mortar and tamp as
specified for the first layer. During tamping of the second layer, bring
in the mortar forced out onto the tops of the molds after each round
of tamping using gloved finger and the tamper. On completion of the
tamping, the tops of all cubes should extend slightly above the top of
the mold.

4) Trowel mortar of each cube both laterally and longitudinally. Cut

off mortar to a plane surface with the top of the mold by drawing the
straight edge of the trowel, held perpendicular to the mold, with a
sawing motion over the length of the mold.

5) Place molded specimens in a moist room for 24 hours. Keep

specimens in their molds for this initial curing period. After 24 hours
remove specimens from the molds and immerse in a saturated lime
water curing tank.
Compressive Strength Testing 2"x2" mortars in Tinius
Determination - Test all Olsen UTM
specimens according to the
specified testing schedule. Three,
7, and 28 day strengths will be
obtained to ascertain the strength
gain as a function of time.

1) Remove specified test specimen

from the curing tank. Wipe to a
surface dry condition and remove
any loose sand grains or
incrustations for test surfaces.
Determine the unit weight of the
specimen by carefully weighing,
and measuring the dimensions of,
each cubical specimen.

2) Apply the load to specimen

faces that were in contact with the
true plane surfaces of the mold.
Check the straightness of these
faces with a straight edge. Note
that grinding is required if the
surfaces have appreciable
curvature. Select opposing
surfaces which have the
straightest profiles.

3) Place specimen below the

center of the upper bearing block
of the testing machine. Ascertain
that this spherically seated block
is free to tilt. Test at a loading rate
such that the peak load will be
reached in a period of 20 s to 80 s.
Make no adjustments in the
controls of the testing machine
while specimen is yielding prior
to failure.

4) Schematically show how the

specimen failed.

5) Record the total maximum load

as indicated by the testing
machine. Calculate the
compressive strength of the
specimen in pounds per square
inch (psi). Express this strength in
Pascals (Pa).

6) Calculate the average of all like

specimens and report to the
nearest 10 psi (70 kPa).
Report

After testing at 1, 3, and 7 days, generate curves, using all group data
for each cement type, of compressive strength vs. time of testing.
Show all data points and plot an average curve. Plot the ASTM C150
Specifications.

Questions

1) What can you infer from this data? Does the data make sense? Is it
consistent with the knowledge you've gained in the lecture? How so?

•  Do the mortar cube results satisfy the strength requirements of

ASTM C150?
Sample Data from CE 305 Fall 2003

Section 2
Section 1

The above chart displays the compressive strengths for all replicates
from section 1 and section 2. The ASTM specification for 7 day
compressive strength is 2200 psi. All 8 cubes tested exceeded the 2200
psi as shown above.

 
Shape of Fracture Typical hour-glass shape after
fracture
As seen in the photo to the right,
an hour-glass shape is common
for a 2in. X 2in. cement specimen
after fracture.

Statement of Test Results

We were unable to test the mortar

cubes at 1, 3, and 28 days. If we
would have been able to test at
the other days listed, we would be
 able to plot up the data and see
how the strength increases with
time.

The data we achieved from the 7

day tests meet the ASTM C150
specifications of 2200 psi.

Conclusion

The cement mortar cubes that

were prepared and tested in lab
sufficiently met the ASTM C150
specifications. I would have liked
to have ran the 1, 3, and 28 days
tests to see the strength-time
relationship we would have
achieved. I would recommend
having volunteers run the tests if
the classes are not in lab to get the
data.
 

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Lab

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

TIME OF SETTING OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT BY VICAT NEEDLE

ASTM C191

Scope

This test method covers the determination of the time of setting of

hydraulic cement by means of the Vicat needle.

References

ASTM C187 Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement

ASTM C305 Mechanical Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes and

Mortars of Plastic Consistency
Apparatus Vicat Apparatus

Vicat apparatus – Consists of a frame, a

movable rod weighing 300 g with a 10 mm
plunger on one end and a 1 mm removable
needle on the other end.

Conical Ring

Glass Plate

Balance – 0.01g resolution.

Timer – 0.5s resolution.

Materials

Hydraulic Cement ~ 650 g.

Water (23°C)

Procedure

Download Procedure for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement

Download Excel form for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement

1. Mix 650 g of cement with the required amount of clean mixing water
to obtain a paste of normal consistency (C187 & C305).

   a) Place all the mixing water in the mixing bowl.

   b) Add the cement to the water and allow 30 s for the absorption of
water.

   c) Start the mixer and mix at slow speed (140 rpm) for 30 s.

   d) Stop the mixer for 15 s; during this rest period scrap down into the
batch any paste that may have collected on the sides of the bowl.

   e) Start the mixer at medium speed (285 rpm) and mix for 1 minute.

Note: Approximately 170 g of mixing water is a good starting point to

determine the normal consistency of the cement.
2. Quickly form the cement paste prepared above into the approximate
shape of a ball with gloved hands. Then toss six times through a free
path of about 6 inches from one hand to the other producing a nearly
spherical ball shaped mass.

3. Press the ball, resting in the palm of one hand, into the larger end of
the conical ring held in the other hand, completely filling the ring with
paste. Remove the excess at the larger end by a single movement of the
palm of the hand. Place the ring on its larger end on the glass plate,
and slice off the excess paste on the smaller end at the top of the ring
by a single oblique stroke of a sharp edge trowel. Smooth the top if
necessary.

4. Center the paste specimen under the 10 mm end of the Vicat
apparatus. Lower the movable rod until the 10 mm end makes contact
with the paste. Zero the indicator. Release the movable rod. A “normal
consistency” is obtained when the penetration, below the original
surface after 30 seconds, is 10 mm +/- 1 mm.

5. Repeat this process, using fresh cement, with varying percentages of

water until the normal consistency is obtained.

6. Prepare a normal consistency paste, using the previously determined

amount of water. Mix and place the paste specimen in the ring using
the procedure outlined in Steps 1 through 3 above.

7. Place the prepared specimen in a moist closet for 30 minutes after

molding without being disturbed.

8. Determine the 30 second penetration using the 1 mm needle at 30

minutes and every 15 minutes thereafter until a penetration of 25 mm
or less is obtained. All post 30 minute penetrations shall not be made
closer than ¼ inch to a previous penetration or closer than ¼ inch to
the conical mold. Place the specimen back in the moist closet between
readings. Also, clean the needle between readings to remove any paste
residue. Record the penetration values and determine the time for
25 mm penetration using interpolation. This is the initial setting time.

9. Determine the final setting time as the time when the needle does
not sink visibly into the paste.

Report

1) The initial setting time to the nearest 5 minutes.

2) The final setting time to the nearest 5 minutes.

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Laboratory

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

FINENESS OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT BY AIR PERMEABILITY

APPARATUS

ASTM C204

Scope

This test method covers the determination of the fineness of

hydraulic cement, using the Blaine air permeability apparatus, in
terms of the specific surface expressed as total surface area in
square meters per kilogram of cement. The Blaine apparatus
draws a defined volume of air through a prepared bed of cement
of defined porosity.

Apparatus

Blaine air permeability apparatus (shown below) – Consists of a

manometer, a stainless steel permeability cell, a perforated metal
disk, and a stainless steel plunger.

 
Balance – 0.001g resolution.

Timer – 0.5s resolution.

Materials

Hydraulic Cement ~ 3g.

Filter Paper – Type 1, Grade B (Federal Specification for Filtering

Paper (UU-P-236) with a 12.7 mm diameter.

Manometer Liquid – light grade of mineral oil (low viscosity and

density).

NIST Standard Reference Material No. 114.

Procedure

Download Procedure for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement

Download Excel form for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement

•  Place approximately 4 oz of cement in a small covered jar or

tin container. Shake vigorously for 2 minutes to fluff the cement
and break up lumps and agglomerates. Allow the covered
container to stand for 2 minutes, then remove the cover and stir
gently to homogenize the sample.
•  Weigh out the cement to the nearest 0.001g. The weight of
sample shall be determined as follows:

W = ρV (1- n )

where ρ is the density of the cement (3.15 g/cm3), n is a standard

porosity of the bed (0.5) and V is the total volume of the cement
bed determined by calibration (See ASTM for calibration
procedure using NIST SRM No. 114). Prior calibration has
established that this volume is:

V = 1.8372 cm3

•  Gently seat the perforated metal disk in the permeability cell

on the ledge at the bottom of the cell using a rod having a
diameter slightly smaller than that of the cell. Place a filter paper
on the metal disk and press the edges down with this same rod.

•  Place the cement in the cell on top of the first filter paper. Tap
the side of the cell lightly in order to level the bed of cement.
Place a second filter paper on this bed of cement.

•  Compress the cement with the plunger until the plunger collar
contacts the top of the cell. Slowly withdraw the plunger a short
distance, rotate the plunger 90°, and compress the cement a
second time until the collar contacts the top of the cell. Slowly
remove the plunger. Note that fresh filter papers must be used
for each determination.

View a Quicktime Movie of compressing the hydaulic cement

•  Attach the permeability cell to the manometer tube (use a little

stopcock grease to ensure an airtight connection).

•  Slowly evacuate the air in the right arm of the manometer

using the pressure bulb until the liquid reaches the top mark,
and then close the manometer valve. The liquid will start to
slowly lower because of airflow through the cement sample into
the manometer.

•  Start the timer when the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid
reaches the second mark from the top and stop the timer when
the bottom of the meniscus reaches the third mark (next to the
bottom mark). Record this time, T , to the nearest 1 second.
View a Quicktime Movie of timing the liquid

Calculation

•  Calculate the specific surface values in accordance with the

following equation:

where T is the measured time interval of the manometer drop for

the test sample, Ss is the specific surface area of the standard
reference material (NIST SRM #114), and Ts is the measured time
interval of the manometer drop for the SRM. This equation is
valid for cement tests performed at the same temperature as the
standard reference test, and at the same porosity ( n =0.5). Prior
calibration has established that these SRM values are as follows:

Ss= 377.4 m2/kg, and

Ts = 92.2 s

Report

1) The specific surface area to the nearest 1 m2/kg.

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Lab

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

DENSITY OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT

ASTM C188

Scope
This test method covers the determination of the density
and specific gravity of hydraulic cement. The specific
gravity is used in the design and control of concrete
mixtures. The density of hydraulic cement is defined as
the mass of a unit volume of the solids.
Apparatus

Le Chatelier Flask – 250 mL

nominal volume.

Balance – 0.01g resolution.

Materials

Hydraulic Cement ~ 64 g.

Kerosene, free of water and

naphtha (0.73 mg/L density at
23°C).
Procedure

Dowload the Procedure for Density of Hydraulic Cement

Download the Excel Lab Form for Density of Hydraulic

Cement

•  Weigh the empty flask with stopper; record this weight

as WF . Fill the flask with kerosene to the 24 mL mark,
weigh the flask and kerosene; record this weight as B .

•  Empty the kerosene until half full. Introduce ~64 g of

cement weighed to the nearest 0.05 g in small increments
into the flask. Record the weight of the dry cement as, A .

•  Partially fill the flask with kerosene (approximately

half full). Make sure all the cement is washed into the
flask during this operation.

•  Place stopper in flask and roll the flask in an inclined

position, or gently swirl in a horizontal circle. Do so until
no further air bubbles rise to the surface of the liquid.

•  Slowly add additional kerosene to the flask, washing

all of the cement into the flask, to a pre-selected
calibration mark (e.g., the 24 mL mark). Weigh the flask
 with the cement and kerosene; record this weight as, C .

•  Empty the flask and wash clean of all cement using

kerosene as the washing agent.

Calculation

•  Calculate the specific gravity of the cement as:

Gc = (A* ( S.G .K)) / (B+A-C)

•  Calculate the cement density,  , as follows:

(Mg/m3) =  (g/cm3) = w Gc , where  w is the mass

density of water (1g/cm3).

Report

1) The density to the nearest 0.01 g/cm3 .

2) The specific gravity to the nearest 0.01.

 

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Lab

 
University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

SLUMP OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT CONCRETE

ASTM C143
Apparatus

Slump mold
w/base plate (see
photo)

Tamping Rod
(5/8” diameter)

Scale (tape
measure)

Shovel, hand
scoop

Materials

0.3 ft3 of mixed

plastic concrete
Procedure

The test procedure for the air content by pressure

method test is part of ASTM 192.

Download the procedures for Slump Test here

1) Start the test within 5 min. after obtaining the final

portion of the mixed concrete sample.

2) Dampen the mold (inside) and place on the

dampened base plate.
3) Hold the mold Reading the slump
firmly in place
during the filling
and rodding
operation (by the
operator standing
on the two foot
pieces).

4) Fill the mold in

three layers, each
approximately
one-third the
volume of the
mold.

5) Rod each layer

with 25 strokes of
the tamping rod.
During filling
and rodding the
top layer, heap
the concrete
above the mold
before rodding is
started.

6) Strike off the

surface by a
screeding and a
rolling motion of
the tamping rod.

7) Remove the
mold
immediately by
raising it in a
vertical direction.
(steps 2 through 7
should be
completed in less
than 2.5 minutes).

8) Place the
empty mold
(inverted)
adjacent to the
concrete sample
and measure the
vertical difference
between the top
of the mold and
the displaced
original center of
the sample. This
is the slump.

View a Quicktime
Movie of a slump
 test
 
Report

1) Record the slump in inches to the nearest ¼ in.

 

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Lab

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

MAKING AND CURING CONCRETE TEST SPECIMENS

IN THE LABORATORY

ASTM C192

Scope

This ASTM practice covers procedures for making and

curing test specimens of concrete in the laboratory under
accurate control of materials and test conditions using
concrete that can be consolidated by rodding or vibration.
This practice also makes reference to typical plastic
concrete tests such as the a) slump test, b) the unit weight,
yield, and air content by gravimetric means, and c) the air
content by pressure meter.

References

ASTM C192 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens

in the Laboratory

ASTM C143 Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete

ASTM C138 Unit Weight, Yield, and Air Content

(Gravimetric) of Concrete

ASTM C231 Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by

the Pressure Method

Mixing of Concrete and Sample Preparation (ASTM

C192)
Apparatus Click for a larger view
Concrete Mixer
Concrete Mixer, power
driven

Tamping Rods

5/8” diameter for 6 inch

diameter cylinders
Beam Molds
3/8” diameter for 3 inch
and 4 inch diameter
cylinders

Shovel, hand scoop, trowel

Cylinder Molds
Mallet - rubber, weighing
approximately 1.25 lb

Molds - cylinders, 3”
diameter by 6”, 4”
diameter by 8”, & 6” Vibratory Table
diameter by 12”, and
beams, 6” by 6” by 21”

Vibratory Table

Materials

Cement, fine and coarse

aggregate, water, and
admixture proportioned
per mix design. Weights of
fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water must
be adjusted for aggregate
moisture contents on day
of batching (field mix
design).
Procedure Adding aggregate to mixer
To download procedures
for the following labs:

•Making and Curing

Concrete Test Specimens

•Slump Test of Portland

Cement Concrete

•Unit weight, yield and

Air Content

•Air Content by Pressure

Method

Download the Procedure

for Making and Curing
Concrete Specimens

1) Dampen entire inside of

mixer drum and drain.

2) Add coarse aggregate,

some of the mixing water,
and admixture solution to
the mixer

3) Start mixer.

4) Add fine aggregate,

cement, and the balance of
the water while the mixer
is running.

5) Mix for 3 minutes

followed by a 3 minute
rest (turn mixer off). Final
mix for an additional 2
minutes.

6) Tilt the mixer while it is

running and pour the
concrete into a clean and
wet wheelbarrow.

7) Remove any concrete

stuck in the mixer using a
scoop or trowel.

8) Remix concrete in the

wheelbarrow using a
shovel.

9) Measure the slump per

CYLINDERS Rodding each layer

a) Place the concrete in the

cylindrical molds, using
hand trowel or scoop, in
three layers, each
approximately one-third
the volume of the mold.
For the final layer, place
sufficient concrete to just
fill mold after compaction
(rodding).

b) Rod each layer, 25

times, with the
appropriate rounded Troweling off top surface
tamping rod. Rod the
bottom layer throughout
it's entire depth. Distribute
the strokes uniformly
across the cross section of
the mold. Rod the upper
layers allowing the rod to
penetrate the underlying
layer about 1 inch.

Note: Use the 5/8” rod for

the 6 inch diameter
cylinders and the 3/8” rod
for the 3 inch & 4 inch
diameter cylinders.

c) After each layer is

rodded, tap the outside of
the mold lightly 15 times
with the mallet. Use an
BEAMS Preparing the rectangle
specimens
a) Place the concrete in the
beam molds, using a hand
trowel or scoop. Fill using
the trowel and tamping
rod as necessary so that
the mold will not be
overfilled by more than
¼”.

b) Place filled beam on

vibration table and vibrate
sufficiently. Usually
sufficient vibration has
been applied as soon as
the surface of the concrete
has become relatively
smooth. Over vibration
may cause segregation of
the aggregates.

c) Finish the top surface by

adding only enough
concrete with a trowel to
overfill the mold by about
1/8”. Work this additional
concrete into the surface
with trowel and strike off
the excess with the trowel.
 12) Curing: Cover the
prepared cylinders and
beams with impervious
plastic sheeting. After
24 hours, remove the
specimens from their
molds and cure, by
immersion, in the water
storage tanks.

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Lab

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

UNIT WEIGHT, YIELD, AND AIR CONTENT

(GRAVIMETRIC) OF CONCRETE

ASTM C138

Terminology

Yield - volume of concrete produced per batch, cubic

yard, or cubic meter

Air content - percentage of air voids by volume in

concrete.
Apparatus

Measure - a cylindrical
metal watertight measure, a
yield bucket (nominal
1/3 ft3 )

Tamping Rod (5/8”

diameter)

Scale (0.01 lb accuracy)

Mallet - rubber, weighing
approximately 1.25 lb

Flat trowel

Materials

0.4 ft 3 of mixed plastic

concrete
Procedure

The test procedure for the air content by pressure method

test is part of ASTM 192.

Download the procedures for Unit Weight, Yield and Air

Content here

1) Weigh the empty measure.

2) Fill the measure with freshly mixed concrete in three

layers of approximately equal volume. Rod each layer
with 25 strokes of the tamping rod.

3) After each layer is rodded, tap the sides of the measure

smartly 15 times with the mallet (this procedure is
required to release any large trapped air bubbles). After
consolidation, the measure must not contain any excess of
concrete protruding above (approximately 1/8”) the top
of the yield bucket.

4) Strike off the top surface with a sawing motion of the

flat trowel (using little vertical pressure).

5) Clean all excess concrete from the exterior of the

measure (use a dampened towel if necessary, and then
dry).

6) Weigh the measure with concrete.

7) Calculate the unit weight of concrete as the ratio

between net weight of concrete and measure volume:

γconcrete = Wconcrete/ Vmeasure

where: γconcrete = unit weight of concrete (lb/ ft3)

Wconcrete = net weight of concrete (lb)

Vmeasure = volume of measure (ft3)

8) Calculate the total weight of all materials batched, i.e.,

the sum of the weights of the cement, fine aggregate
(sand), coarse aggregate (gravel), the mixing water, and
any admixture:

W1 = Wc + Ws * + Wg * + Ww * + Wa

where: Wc , Ws * , Wg * , Ww * and Wa are the weights of

cement, sand, gravel, water, and admixture, respectively.
(Note: Ws * , Wg * , and Ww * are adjusted weights for
absorption and moisture content).

9) Calculate the yield, in yd3 /batch as:

Yield = W1 /(27 γconcrete )

10) Calculate the theoretical unit weight of concrete (on

an air-free basis):

γtheoretica = W1/V

where: V = the total absolute volume of the component

ingredients in the batch (ft3);

V = [(Wc /Gc ) + (Ws /Gs ) + (Wg /Gg ) + (Ww /Gw ) +

(Wa /Ga )]/ γw

where: Gc is the specific gravity of cement (=3.15)

Gs , and Gg , are the bulk specific gravities (dry) of sand,

and gravel, respectively,

Ga is the specific gravity of the admixture,

Gw is the specific gravity of water (=1.00),

γw is the unit weight of water, 62.4 lb/ ft3, and

Ws , Wg , and Ww , are the weights of sand, gravel, and

 water (unadjusted for absorption and moisture).

11) Calculate the air content as

% Air = 100( γtheoretical - γconcrete )/ γtheoretical

Report

1) Report the value of unit weight to the nearest 0.1 lb/ft3.

2) Report the value of theoretical unit weight to the

nearest 0.1 lb/ft3.

3) Report the air content to the nearest 0.1%.

4) Report the yield to the nearest 0.01 yd3.

 

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Lab

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens

ASTM C39

Scope

This ASTM test method covers the determination of the

unconfined compressive strength of cylindrical concrete
specimens. The test method consists of applying a
compressive axial load to molded cylinders (or cores) at a
rate which is within a prescribed range until failure occurs.
The compressive strength of the specimen is calculated by
dividing the maximum load attained during the test by the
cross-sectional area of the specimen.

References

ASTM C39 Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete

Specimens

ASTM C617 Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens

ASTM C192 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in

the Laboratory
Capping Cylindrical Concrete Concrete Samples to
Specimens (ASTM C617) be capped

Apparatus  

Capping Plate (mold)

Alignment Device (guide bars)

Melting Pot

Fume Hood (exhaust fan)

Materials

Moist-cured concrete cylinders (with no

moisture on the surface) Liquid sulfer placed
in mold
Sulfur mortar (5000 psi strength at 2
hours)

Procedure

Download Capping and Unconfined

Compression Procedures

Download the Unconfined

Compression Excel Form

1) Prepare sulfur mortar for use by Capping the

heating to about 265°F (130°C). Fresh Cylinder
sulfur mortar must be dry at the time of
placement in the melting pot
(dampness will cause foaming). Note:
The flash point of sulfur mortar is
approximately 440°F (225°C).

2) Oil the capping plate lightly.

3) Stir the molten sulfur mortar
immediately prior to pouring each cap.

4) Dry the ends of the moist-cured

specimens to preclude the formation of
steam and foam pockets in the caps.

5) Pour the molten sulfur mortar into

the capping plate (mold). Lower the
specimen, using the alignment device
guide bars, ensuring that the axis of the Capping Results
specimen is perpendicular to the plate.

6) The molded end caps on the

specimen should have a minimum
thickness of 1/8 ” (3 mm) but less than
5/16” (8 mm).

7) After the sulfur mortar has set,

remove the specimen from the mold
plate using a slight twisting motion.

8) Repeat this process, capping both Capped cylinder

ends of the specimen. placed in the UTM

9) Maintain the specimen in a moist

condition between the completion of
capping and the time of testing.

Compressive Strength of Cylindrical

Concrete Specimens (ASTM C39)

Apparatus

Compression Test Machine

Materials

Capped cylindrical concrete specimens

Procedure  

1) Maintain the specimen in a moist

condition up to the time of compression
testing. Compression tests are made as
soon as practicable after removal from
moist storage. The specimens are tested
in this cured moist condition.

2) Wipe clean the bearing surfaces of

the upper and lower platens of the
compression testing machine. Also,
wipe clean both end caps of the test
specimen.

3) Center the specimen on the lower

platen of the testing machine.

4) Carefully align the axis of the

specimen with the center of thrust of
the spherically seated upper platen.

5) Bring the upper platen to bear on the

specimen, adjusting the load to obtain
uniform seating of the specimen.

6) Apply the load at a loading rate of 20

to 50 psi/s (140 to 350 lb/s for 3”
diameter cylinders, 250 to 630 lb/s for
4” diameter cylinders, 560 to 1400 lb/s
for 6” diameter cylinders). The time to
failure for 3000 psi concrete is 1 to
2.5 minutes.

7) Apply the load at the prescribed

loading rate until the specimen fails.
Record the maximum load (lb). Note
the type of failure and the appearance
of the concrete (see Figure 1).
 Figure 1. Types of Concrete Fracture.

Click here to view a Quicktime movie

of an unconfined compression test

Report

1) Report the size (diameter and length)

and the age of the specimen.

2) Record the maximum load to the

nearest 10 lb.

3) Report the type of failure and

appearance of the concrete.

4) Calculate the unconfined

compressive strength of the specimen
by dividing the maximum load by the
cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Report this strength to the nearest
10 psi.

Assignment

1) Measure the unconfined compressive

strength of previously prepared
specimens at 7, 14, and 28 days.
Perform these tests per the defined test
schedule.

2) Plot the results for all data generated

by the class (both sections if applicable),
showing unconfined compression
strength (y-axis) versus time in days (x-
axis). Calculate average strength values
from the above data and plot.

3. For purposes of design of concrete

structures, the 28 day strength is
typically used. What is fcr' based on the
acquired test results?

4. Calculate the standard deviation for

7, 14, and 28 days. Assume that the
standard deviation at 28 days is based
on a sample size greater than 30
specimens. Calculate fc' using the 28
day mean and standard deviation.
Sample Data from CE 305 Fall 2002

Unconfined compression test of 3500 psi concrete.

Type V Type V
Test Day
Strength (psi) Std. Dev. (psi)
7 3480
7 3450
7 3550
Average 3493 51
14 4170
14 4110
14 4020
Average 4100 75
28 5150
28 5020
Average 5085 92
70 5220
70 5660
Average 5440 311
 
 
  

Sample result of shear failure

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Laboratory

University of New Mexico

 Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

PULSE VELOCITY THROUGH CONCRETE

ASTM C597

Scope

This ASTM test method covers the determination of the

pulse velocity of propagation of compressional waves in
concrete. The pulse velocity is related to the physical
properties of a solid by the equation:

where:

a constant,

the modulus of elasticity, and

the mass density.

This test method does not apply to the propagation of

other vibrations within the concrete

Summary of Method

Pulses of compressional waves are generated by an

electro-acoustical transducer that is held in contact with
one surface of the concrete under test. After traversing
through the concrete, the pulses are received and
converted into electrical energy by a second transducer
located a distance from the transmitting transducer.
The transit time is measured electronically. The pulse
velocity is calculated by dividing by .

Related Non-Destructive Test (NDT) Procedures

ASTM C215 Standard Test Method for Fundamental

Transverse, Longitudinal, and Torsional Frequencies of
Concrete Specimens

ASTM C805 Standard Test Method for Rebound Number

of Hardened Concrete
Apparatus Figure 1. Schematic of Pulse
Velocity Circuit.
Ultra Sonic Tester - The
testing apparatus ,
shown schematically in
Figure 1, consists of a
pulse generator, a pair
of transducers
(transmitter and
receiver), an amplifier,
a time measuring
circuit, a time display
unit, and connecting
cables. The PUNDIT
ultrasonic concrete
tester incorporates all of
the above-described
features.

Calibration bar - a
reference bar for which
the transit time is
accurately known
Materials Figure 2. Photo of Procedure

Concrete Specimen - 6”
diameter by 12” long

Procedure

Download Procedure
for Pulse Velocity

Download Excel form

for Pulse Velocity

1) Check the accuracy

of the transmit time
measurement against
the calibration bar. Use
an appropriate coupling
agent (e.g., vacuum
grease, petroleum jelly,
or other viscous
material) between the
transducers and the
ends of the calibration
bar. Adjust the
PUNDIT ultrasonic
tester so that the transit
time is the same as that
stamped on the
calibration bar.
2) Measure the length of the concrete specimen.

3) Determine the mass of the concrete specimen.

4) Apply the appropriate coupling agent to the

transducers and the test surfaces (the ends of the
cylindrical specimen) in order to avoid entrapped air
between the contact surface of the transducers and the
concrete surface.

5) Press the faces of the transducers against the surfaces of

the concrete (cylindrical ends) assuring good contact.

6) Measure the transit time.

Calculation

1) Calculate the pulse velocity as follows:

V=L/T

where:

V = pulse velocity, m/s,

L = distance between transducers, m, and

T = transit time, s.

2) Calculate the modulus of elasticity as follows:

 where:

E = the modulus of elasticity, Pa (N/m2),

V = pulse velocity, m/s,

ρ = the mass density, kg/m3, and

K = 1 (for a cylindrical specimen tested as above).

Report

1) Specimen description and location of transducers.

2) Distance between transducers.

3) Transit time.

4) Pulse velocity.

5) Mass density of specimen.

6) Modulus of elasticity (nearest 50,000 psi).

Questions

1. What is the value of E in pounds per square inch?

(Note: 0.3048 m = 12 in. = 1 ft, 4.448 N = 1 lb)

2. How does the non-destructive determination of the

Modulus of Elasticity compare with that determined by
ASTM Test Method C469 (Static Modulus of Elasticity of
Concrete in Compression)? What is the % difference
between these two measurements? Which one is greater
in value? Explain the difference.
 

Return to Portland Cement Concrete Laboratory

University of New Mexico

 Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

ASTM C78

Scope

This ASTM test method covers the determination of the

flexural strength of concrete using a simple beam with
third-point loading. The results are calculated and
reported as the modulus of rupture.

References

ASTM C78 Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple

Beam with Third-Point Loading)

ASTM C496 Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical

Concrete Specimens

ASTM C39 Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete

Specimens

ASTM C192 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens

in the Laboratory

Definitions

Modulus of Rupture (MOR) - the tensile strength of a

material determined using a flexural specimen.

Apparatus

Compression Testing Machine

Loading Apparatus - Third-point loading mechanism

Materials

6” x 6” x 21” Moist-cured concrete beams

Procedure

Download the procedure for Flexural Strength of

Concrete here

Download the Excel form for Flexural Strength of

Concrete here
1) Position the specimen in the  
testing machine. Center the loading
apparatus in relation to the applied Three point loading
axial force. set up

2) Bring the load-applying block in

contact with the upper surface of the
specimen at the third points
between the lower supports. The
span distance between the lower
supports is 18 in.

3) Apply the load continuously at a Fractured sample

rate that increases the extreme fiber
stress 125 to 275 psi/minute until
rupture occurs (the load rate is 1500
to 3300 lb/minute for 6” by 6”
beams with a span of 18”). Note the
peak load at failure.

4) If the fracture (rupture) occurs in

the tension surface (the bottom
surface) outside the middle third of
the span length by more than 5% of
Surface of fractured
the span length (about 1 in.), discard
sample
the result of the test.

5) Calculate the modulus of rupture

(MOR), neglecting the beam weight,
as follows:

a) When fracture initiates in the

tension surface (i.e., the bottom
surface) within the middle third of
the beam,
where P is the maximum load at
failure in pounds, l is the span
length, d is the depth of the beam,
and b is the width of the beam. All
dimensions are in inches.

b) If fracture initiates in the tension

surface (i.e., the bottom surface)
outside the middle third of the beam
by not more than 5% of the span
length,

where a is the average distance, in

inches, between the line of fracture
and the nearest support measured
on the tension surface of the beam

View a Quicktime Movie of the

modulus of rupture test
Report

1) Report the type of concrete, unit weight, and

unconfined compressive strength.

2) Report the modulus of rupture to the nearest 5 psi.

Questions

1. What is the ratio of the modulus of rupture strength to

the unconfined compressive strength?

2. How does the modulus of rupture flexural tensile

strength compare with the strength obtained from the
splitting tensile test ( ASTM C496, Splitting Tensile
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens )? Express as
a ratio of the split tensile strength to the MOR.

3. An empirical relation for the MOR, according to your

 textbook, is

How well does this relation predict your measured MOR?

What is the percent error?
 

Return to Materials Response Laboratory

University of New Mexico

Civil Engineering Department

Civil Engineering Materials Laboratory, CE 305L

TENSILE TEST OF STEEL

General

The tensile test of a standard ASTM steel specimen to

failure provides the important basic properties of steel,
viz., the proportional (or elastic limit) of the material, the
yield stress, the ultimate stress, the elongation (strain) and
the material stiffness (Young's modulus of elasticity.

Definitions (see Hibbeler, Chapter 3):

Elastic Limit (proportional limit): the highest magnitude of

stress for which the stress and strain are proportional to
each other.

Elastic modulus (Young's modulus): the ratio of stress to

strain below the elastic limit.

Elongation: the strain at fracture expressed as a percentage;

this is a measure of the ductility of the material.

Modulus of resilience: the amount of energy (or work)

stored per unit volume at the elastic limit.

Modulus of toughness: the amount of energy stored per

unit volume at fracture of the material; this is a measure of
the ductility of the material.

Percent Area Reduction: reduction in area at fracture in

necking region with respect to original cross-section area;
this is a measure of the ductility of the material.

Strain (engineering): the unit deformation of the material

under load. Strain is not normally measured. Deformation
is typically measured using extensometers with strain
subsequently computed by dividing the measured
deformation by the original.

Strain hardening: portion of the stress-strain curve between

the elastic limit and the ultimate stress.

Stress (engineering): load (force) per unit area; the normal

(axial) stress is determined by dividing the load by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen.

Stress-strain curve: an x-y plot of stress vs. strain through

the entire range of loading of the specimen until specimen
failure.

Ultimate stress: the maximum observed stress that the

specimen will withstand.

Yield stress: the stress at which the material begins to

“yield”; for mild steel there is a noticeable increase in
deformation with little increase in load. For steel and most
metals, a 0.2% offset is used to define the yield stress. A
strain value of 0.002 is selected and a line parallel to the
elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is constructed. The
intersection of this line with the stress-strain curve defines
the value of the yield stress.

Objectives

To examine the behavior of mild steel tested to failure in

tension. To determine certain elastic and plastic properties
of mild steel.
Equipment

1. Universal Testing Machine (UTM) with applicable

tensile grips

2. Mechanical extensometer

3. Calipers

•  Mechanical dividers

•  Machinist scale (6 inch)

•  Gage length punch & hammer

Specimen Placing notches in
specimen with gage
1. Standard ASTM A36 mild steel punch and hammer
specimen (nominal 0.505 inch)

Procedure

1. Determine the mean diameter of

the nominal 0.505 inch specimen &
record.

•  Mark a 2-inch gage length on the

specimen using the gage punch &
Measuring steel
hammer.
specimen manually
•  Insert the specimen in the UTM
and attach the extensometer.
Carefully follow the manufacturer's
directions for attachment of the
extensometer. Select a load range
for the UTM that will accommodate
the maximum anticipated load
during the test.

•  Apply the load slowly ,

obtaining simultaneous readings of Steel and plastic
load from the UTM and elongation specimens after tests
from the extensometer. When the
extensometer nears its range,
remove. Then continue monitoring
the elongation of the specimen
using the mechanical dividers and
machinist scale in 0.05 inch
increment until fracture occurs.
Attempt to obtain the load at
fracture.

5. After failure, fit the broken halves

together and measure the final
“gage” length, and the smallest
diameter.

View a Quicktime Movie of a

tensile test of steel

Incomparison to the tensile test of

steel, we ran a tensile test on
Polyethylene Hi-Density plastic.

View a Quicktime Movie of a

tensile test of plastic

 
Required

•  a) A complete stress vs. strain curve for the entire test to

fracture.

•  A stress vs. strain curve to the yield point (by the 0.2%
offset method)

•  A stress vs. strain curve just past the proportional limit

stress

The following Figures 1 through 3 are typical results and

presentations that are expected from your experimental
results.

•  Tabulate the following values and clearly show them on

the above stress vs. strain curves:

•  Proportional limit stress

•  Modulus of elasticity (Young's)

•  Yield stress (by 0.2% offset)

•  Ultimate stress

•  Percent elongation in 2-inch gage length

•  Percent reduction in area

•  Modulus of resilience

•  Modulus of toughness (use trapezoidal integration)

•  Compare your tabulated values to known theoretical

values for A36 mild steel and report your experimental
errors. Tabulate theoretical and experimental values along
the % errors for all required values.

References

•  Hibbeler, R.C. Mechanics of Materials , 5 th Edition,

Prentice Hall, 2002.

•  ASTM E8, Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic

Materials , Vol. 3.01.

Figure 1. Stress vs. Strain to Fracture.

Figure 2. Stress vs. Strain to Yield (0.2%).
 Figure 3. Stress vs. Strain to Proportional Limit.

 
Concrete floors
The Technology

Vacuum Dewatering Technology: Brief History

Dewatering of concrete by the vacuum process was designed in

1935 by K.R. Billner, a Swedish American, in Yale - the
University where Professor Abrahams had already discovered
and explained the direct relation between the strength of
concrete and the water/cement ratio of the concrete mix. In early
1940s this technology was employed in construction of military
installations and several civil facilities. Later on the team of
experts lead by K.R. Billner improved the design of vacuum
equipment. In 1950s the technology expanded into Europe and a
number of other regions.

This lead to further design improvements to manufacture lighter

and more user friendly equipment. Vacuum dewatering was
integrated into a single technological procedure together with
the use of track rail system, surface and immersion vibration of
concrete, and mechanised treatment of concrete surfaces. If a
further improvement of strength and wear resistance is aimed at,
a special topping material can be worked into the concrete
surface while the surface is still humid to produce a durable
coloured wear course several millimetres thick.

The major drawbacks of conventionally installed concrete floors

(including polished tile floors, conventional concrete floors) are:

Conventionally laid concrete inherits certain drawbacks, which

narrow the application of such concrete in certain structures.

Conventional in-situ concrete laying techniques even with

vibration can only assure voids and entrapped air elimination
when a wetter easily workable concrete is used (with high
water/cement ratio). This practice causes some disintegration of
the mix components (coarse aggregate settles in the bottom part
of the concrete structure being produced with fines and water in
the top part). A certain volume of water bound, considerable
amount of water which assured the workability of the mix
gathers in the top part of the structure and evaporates leaving
voids and entrapped air in the body of concrete while tempering
and hardening is still in progress. Thus the compressive strength
of top and bottom parts of such concrete structures can not be
uniform.

When hardening occurs high void content of concrete leads to

appreciable shrinkage (curling and much crack formation), low
frost-, freeze-thaw, temperature jumps, chemically active
substances, vibration and dynamic load resistance, as well as to
considerable wear and, as a result, to high dusting.

A sore spot with concrete floors is the deterioration of the surface

near construction (artificially created) joints, which break the
floor surface into lots and check the uncontrolled spreading of
the concrete mix. The weakening of the joint occurs due to
damage of adjacent surfaces of floor slabs when casting is
removed and also because of additional shrinkage and washout
of the basis under it with water penetrating in the joint, which
results in a to-be-avoided cantilever load in the joint.

Cantilever load and considerable dynamic load on slab edges

curled after shrinkage, deformation from transport and
machinery can easily damage the edges.

Advantages of the "Tremix" Vacuum System (Sweden)

offered by STAB, CC
for installation of concrete structures

STAB, CC uses technology and equipment of the Swedish

company Tremix for installation of concrete floors, bases and
inserted floors, which feature superior quality and are free of the
above mentioned drawbacks. The technology boosts strength
and performance. The concrete structures demonstrate minimum
void content and uniform strength of joints and the entire body.
Deviations of evenness of the surface read from a 2 m straight-
edge do not exceed 4 mm. Despite fast hardening vacuum
processing makes it easier to cast a more even floor because once
the concrete is vacuum dewatered it leaves more time till the
surface is too hard to be adjusted.

The technology assures quicker completion through elimination

of some standard operations (e.g. enclosing of concreting site,
gathering in, etc.), minimisation of waiting time before a newly
cast concrete is ready for mechanised treatment, earlier 70 per
cent (X4) strength increase, faster completion of certain
operations by using equipment. Much earlier hardening of
concrete at low air temperatures (with much better time of
overheating) and less time consuming curing at highs are
especially noteworthy.

Tremix technology makes quickest possible completion a reality

(up to 300-500 m2 of concrete floor per shift).

Behind it are the following solutions:

 track rail system

 vibration treatment of the concrete mix (with immersion and surface vibrators)

 vibration treatment of the concrete mix (with immersion and surface vibrators)

 mechanised finishing of the concrete surface (floating and trowelling)

Advantages of immersion and surface vibration:

 Tripods (rail supports) to be set under the level facilitate height marking, assure
accurate slopes and gradients and provide for superior flatness of surface. They
are not left in situ thus eliminating stripping operations, which can damage joints.
 Track rails are set on tripods pre-mounted at specific height marks. Track rails
guide the movement of vibrator screeds.

Advantages of immersion and surface vibration:

 voids and entrapped air in the body of concrete are eliminated, proper
compaction and improved dispersion of stone, gravel and cement are obtained
resulting in better constitutive properties of the mix.
 surface vibrators level and smooth the surface to prepare it for mechanised
finishing.

Advantages of vacuum processing of concrete surface:

Vacuum dewatering reduces the water/cement ratio by 10-25

per cent, which automatically leads to a noticeable improvement
of almost each of the concrete properties: Considerably denser
structural framework of concrete, minimum void content thanks
to the lowest possible volume of surplus non-constitution water
excluded from the process of hardening, much faster hardening.

Vacuum dewatering reduces the water/cement ratio by 10-25

per cent, which automatically leads to a noticeable improvement
of almost each of the concrete properties: Considerably denser
structural framework of concrete, minimum void content thanks
to the lowest possible volume of surplus non-constitution water
excluded from the process of hardening, much faster hardening.

Durable bond between the concrete and the profile of the base is
ensure by the top 8,000 kg/m2 pressure exerted on the concrete
during vacuum processing (with the vacuum pump producing
0.8 atm vacuum). The pressure without vacuum processing will
only that exerted by the weight of the placed concrete, e.g. 120
kg/m2 for a 5 cm layer.

The Tremix Vacuum System is a method for laying high-

quality concrete floors at an acceptable cost. The key of the
method is dewatering concrete by the vacuum process.

Through vacuum dewatering,the surplus water is removed from

the concrete, which means that the water/cement ratio
automatically leads to a noticeable improvement of almost each
of the concrete properties. These improvements are particularly
noticeable on the top surface i.e. the most vital part of a floor.

The 24-hour-strength of the vacuum dewatered concrete slab is

much higher, which reduces the risk of damage on a newly cast
floor.The final strength is about 50 % higher than that of a
conventional concrete floor.

Advantages:-

* Higher and more uniform quality

* Increased tensile strength in bending
* Thinner slabs - lower cost
* Minimized plastic shrinkage
* Minimized dry shrinkage
* Increased wear resistance
* Improved frost resistance
* Minimized crack formation
* High flatness accuracy
* Better adhesion to the base, when casting
a wear course on already hardened concrete
* No curling