A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the excavation in

which a bridge pier or other structure is built.

Types of Cofferdams

 Braced

 Earth-Type

 Timber Crib

 Double-Walled Sheet Pile

 Cellular

Braced Cofferdams

 Formed from a single wall of sheet piling

 Drive into the ground to form a box around the excavation site

 The “box” is then braced on the inside

 Interior is dewatering

 Primarily used for bridge piers in shallow water.

Earth-Type Cofferdams

 Simplest Type of Cofferdam

 Consists of an earth bank w/a clay core or vertical sheet piling enclosing the excavation.

 Used for low-level waters with low velocity

 Easily scoured by water rising over the top

Timber Crib Cofferdam

 Cellular-Type Cofferdam

 Constructed on land and floated into place

 Lower portion of each cell matched with contour of river bed

 Uses rock ballast and soil to decrease seepage and sink into place

 Also known as “Gravity Dam”

  Usually consists of 12’ x 12’ cells

 Used in rapid currents or on rocky river beds

 Must be properly designed to resist lateral forces such as:

 Tipping / Overturning

 Sliding

Double-Walled Cofferdam

 Two-parallel rows of steel sheet piles driven into the ground

 Tied together with anchors and wales then filled with soil

 Three principle types:

 Box: Consists of straight flush walls

 Semicircular cells connected by diaphragms

 Circular cells connected with tie-rods or diaphragms

Cellular Cofferdam

 Two main types are circular and segmental.

 Can be used on a temporary or permanent basic.

 Force are resisted by the mass of the cofferdam.

Cofferdam Design Considerations

 Scouring or undermining by rapidly flowing water

 Stability against overturning or tilting

 Upward forces on outside edge due to tilting

 Stability against vertical shear

 Effects of forces resulting from:

 Ice, Wave, Water, Active Earth and Passive Earth Pressures

Advantages of Cofferdams

 Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment

  Provides safe environment to work

 Contractors typically have design responsibility

 Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed

 Materials can typically be reused on other projects

Disadvantages of Cofferdams

 Special equipment required

 Relatively expensive

 Typically very time consuming & tedious

 If rushed, sheets can be driven out of locks or out of plumb

 When in flowing water “log jams” may occur creating added stress on structure

Items needed for installation

 Pile driving hammer

 Vibratory or Impact

 Crane of sufficient size

 Steel sheet piles are typically used

 H-piles and/or wide-flange beams for wales and stringers

 Barges may be required

Pictures of Pile Hammers

Steel Sheet Piling Properties

 Moderately watertight

 High shear and bending strength

 High interlock strength

 Easy to install/remove

 Reusable

 Can be cantilevered but typically require additional structural member (i.e. wales and cross
bracing)

Traditional Sheet Pile Shapes

Steel Sheet Pile Interlocks

 No industry Standard

 Interlocks Should:

 Provide relative water or earth-tight connections

 Permit reasonable free sliding to connect sheets during installation

 Provide minimum guaranteed pull strength

 Allow minimum swing between locks in order to form a circle

Typical Types of Interlocks

Braced Cofferdam Construction

 Install Wale and Strut System for Framework / Template

 Install Sheet piles using the Framework as Template

Tips for installing Sheet piles

 Always set-up a template system

 Rule of thumb: Crane Boom length should be twice that of the sheets

 Drive the Sheets with the “male” interlock leading in order to avoid soil plugs

 If the “female” interlock must lead, place a bolt or other object at the bottom to
avoid debris filling the slot

 Align and plumb the first two sheets and drive carefully and accurately

 Drive sheets in pairs when possible placing the hammer in the center of the pair

Site before construction

Excavation of terrain performed to avoid “sliding” while lock foundation was being
excavated
Slowed the water work

Deflector and cells being constructed simultaneously

Typical Cell Framework and Construction

Typical pile driving operation using a vibratory hammer. Impact hammers were also
used.
Extremely good river conditions

Typical cell filling operation

Typical round Cell Construction
Dewatering

Dewatering after 40 days

Completed Cofferdam, turned over to Lock Contractor

Typical day of operations within the cofferdam

Overview shot of project

The evolution of beam design, in the materials available for use and advancements in the
understanding of their behaviour and physical properties, had made it possible to construct the
architectural masterpieces of today. To appreciate these achievements the Engineer must have a
fundamental understanding behind the choice of material including beam cross section profile and
physical characteristics, the significance of the beam supports, as well as being able to understand
and perform basic calculations on beam deflections, shear stresses and bending moments.
Choice of material
Ultimately the choice of material determines the strength of the beam, that is how much load it
can support before failure occurs and generally relates to its Young’s modulus (E). However, most
materials exhibit different behaviour when subject to compression and tension, which must be
accounted for in its design.

The four most significant materials used in beam design, that will be examined further here are:
cast iron, steel, concrete and wood. Others include carbon fibre and composite materials.

Cast Iron
Cast iron was recognised as a building material in the late 1700s when during the Industrial
Revolution a method of production (by blast furnace), this being both economical and practical,
was developed. Cast iron is generally strong in compression but not tension so initial applications
were in the form of bridges and other structures requiring short members existing in compression.
Coalbrookdale iron bridge, built c.1770 provides and excellent example of this, figure 1.

Figure 1 – Coalbrookdale Iron Bridge

Young’s modulus of cast iron: E ≈ 211 Gpa means it is relatively strong yet simultaneously brittle
by nature. This undesirable characteristic lead to a number of catastrophic collapses of early
bridges and limited its use as a building material, despite the ability to form beams of varying
shapes and elaborate designs. In spite of these negative connotations it was viewed as a
revolutionary building material as it enabled the replacement of traditionally masonry with sleek,
slender iron beams.

Steel
In the late 1880s, Henry Bessemer developed a method for mass producing steel – a move that
signified the dawn of the skyscraper. This strong material with a Young’s modulus of: E ≈ 800
Gpa, could now be feasibly formed into I-beams and steel columns. Combining a series of these I-
beams and steel columns it was possible to construct a structural, steel core of great height (figure
2) to which the floors, roof and walls of a building could be attached, giving birth to the
skyscraper. This method was used to construct the Empire State Building, New York, which was to
remain the tallest building in the world for over forty years.

Figure 2 – steel core construction, New York c.1930

Using steel as a building material is not without its disadvantage, good in both compression and
tension due to the ability to dictate a specific cross section profile, it softens at high temperatures
so to prevent the collapse of buildings in the event of fire it tends to be encases in a fire resistant
material.

Another advantage of steel is the ability to vary its composition and hence change its physical
properties. Typically an alloy of iron and carbon, the carbon content commonly being between
0.2% and 2.14%, the addition of manganese will provide a significant increase in the strength at a
modest cost. Similarly the addition of chromium or nickel will harden the steel and increase its
ability to resist corrosion. Other alloys can be added accordingly to enhance certain physical
properties or characteristics.

Concrete

Both the Ancient Egyptians and Romans used concrete in their buildings, however after the
collapse of the Roman Empire its secrets were almost lost until its rediscovery in recent times. The
application of a patent for the manufacture of Portland cement in 1824 signifies one of the
important milestones in history of concrete and since this time significant advancements have
been made with the development of pre-stressed concrete beams.

Concrete contains water, aggregate and cement. The aggregate tends to be gravels (comprising of
crushed rock and sand) that form the bulk volume of the concrete. Cement, commonly Portland
cement, bonds together the constituents providing the strength and durability of the concrete.

Concrete has a wide range of functions and is particularly suited for applications where it is subject
to compressive forces, such as integral building columns, yet with reinforcements this range can
be expanded to include thin-shell structures as show in figure 3.
 Figure 3 – El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofia, Valencia

Pre-stressed concrete contains tendons (usually made of steel), as concrete is generally only good
in compression these tendons offset the tensile stress a concrete member would have otherwise
experience when subject to a load. There are three main types of pre-stressing concrete beams,
pre-tensioned, bonded post-tensioned and unbonded post-tensioned:

1. Pre-tensioned concrete: the concrete beam is cast around already tensioned tendons in the
manufacturing process; these are then released and secured.
2. Bonded post-tensioned: the tendons are inserted into a pre-designated duct after the
concrete in cast (poured and begun the curing process) on site; these are the released and
secured.

3. Unbonded post-tensioned concrete: these are the same as bonded post-tensioned except
for the fact that they allow for movement of the tendons within the concrete and can be
adjusted at a later date.

Wood

Wood has been used for centauries as a building material due to its high availability, durability and
strength. Wood is classified according to the tree of its origin; it being a hardwood or softwood,
this classification does not necessarily represent its engineering properties. For example, Balsa is
classified as a hardwood yet its characteristics mean it is actually softer that many commercial
types of softwood.

As an organic material, wood has a tendency to adapt to its surroundings specifically climate
conditions where by it will expand when moisture is present and contract in dryer climates. Figure
4 shows a wooden frame, which will form the integral structure of a building.
 Figure 4 – wooden framed house

Beam Characteristics

There are a number of properties of a beam that an Engineer should be aware of as they dictate
beam behaviour when subject to a load and ultimately represent possible areas or mechanisms for
failure. The main ones being:

 Second moment of area (also referred to as the second moment of inertia): this depends
on the cross section profile of the beam and is a measure of the resistance of the shape of
the beam to bending.
 Bending moment: usually illustrated on a bending moment diagram, and often related the
deflection of the beam, can be used to calculate regions subject to maximum bending
forces and consequently most likely to yield. It also illustrates which sections of the beam
are in compression or tension.

 Beam deflection: beam deflection tends to be undesirable and correlates to the bending
moment.

 Shear diagrams: these are used to illustrate stress concentrations along the beam and
provide a means to identify areas of maximum shear forces where the beam is more likely
to fail by shear.

Second moment of area

The second moment of area (I) is a property of the shape used to predict the resistance of the
beam to bending and deflection. It is calculated from the physical cross sectional area of the beam
and relates the profile mass to the neutral axis (this being a region where the beam is subject to
neither compression or tension, as labelled in figure 5.). It is dependant on the direction of
loading; for most beams except both hollow and solid box and circular sections, the second
moment of area will be different when loaded from a horizontal or vertical direction.
Figure 5 – a) simply supported beam of length l with no force; b) simply supported beam subject
to point load (force) F at centre creating bending.

The second moment of area can be calculated from first principles for any cross section profile
using the equation:

However, for common beam profiles standard formula are used:

I – beam / Universal beam

Figure 6 – I-beam cross-section profile with loading parallel to web.

The I – beam or Universal beam has the most efficient cross sectional profile as most of its
material is located away from the neutral axis providing a high second moment of area, which in
turn increases the stiffness, hence resistance to bending and deflection. It can be calculated using
the formula:
As shown in figure 6, this is only suitable for loading parallel to the web, as loading perpendicular
to the web would be less efficient.

Box section

Figure 7 – Box section cross-section profile

The box section has the most efficient profile in loading both horizontally and vertically. It has a
lower value for second moment of area so is less stiff. It can be calculated by using the formula:

Bending moment and shear diagrams

Bending moment and shear diagrams are typical drawn alongside a diagram of the beam profile as
shown below, this enables an accurate representation of the beams behaviour.

a) represents a beam subject to a uniformly distributed load (udl) of magnitude w, across its
length, l. Total force on beam being wl.

The beam is simply supported with reaction forces R.

Distance x represents any point along the beam.

b) shear force diagram shows the regions of maximum shear, for this beam these correlate to the
reaction forces.

The slope of the shear force diagram is equal to the magnitude of the distributed load.
A positive shear force will cause the beam to rotate clockwise and a negative shear force will cause
the beam to rotate in an anticlockwise direction.

c) maximum bending moment occurs when no shear forces exist on the beam.

As the beam is simply supported, that is only subject to vertical reaction forces, no bending
moment is experienced at these points. If the beam were restricted as in a cantilever situation
then bending moments would be experienced at either end Correlating to the diagrams of beam
loading, shear force and bending moments maximums and values at distance x along the beam
can be calculated using the following formula:

Reaction force and maximum shear force and Shear force at distance x

Maximum bending moment and Bending moment at distance x

Maximum deflection and Deflection at distance x

These formulas are specific to this beam situation, that is a uniformly distributed load with simple
supports as shown. For a cantilever beam, or one with varying degrees of freedom at the supports
(this refers to restrains in the horizontal direction subjecting the beam to a turning moment at this
location) then different formula will be required. All formula can be calculated from first principles
but for convenience look-up-tables such as those contained in “Roark’s formulas for stress and
strain” can be utilised.

The equations for maximum beam deflection, ∆ MAX and deflection at distance x, ∆ x are shown to be
dependant on the Young’s modulus, E and second moment of area, I, where as shear force and
bending moment are independent of these beam characteristics.
For most of the fine grained soils (containing silt and clays) it might be sufficient to use simple spread footings, it
is largely depending on the magnitude of the load. The location of the foundations in relation to the soil (need to
be aware of foundation walls and hydrostatic pressure as moisture is present in the soil).

 If the soil is poor and structure loads are relatively heavy, then alternate methods are required.
 Pile foundations might be required in some cases where fine cohesive silt and clay soil is present. (CH,
OH).

 Sometimes it might be desirable and economically feasible to over excavate remove such soils that are
not of bearing capacity; can remove compact and fill back or import other engineered soil.

 The geotechnical engineer based on borings will recommend suitable foundations systems or
alternative solutions, also beating capacity, minimum depths, and special design or construction
procedures might be established.

 Safe bearing capacity of soil equals to the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a safety factor (usually 2-
4). ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the maximum unit pressure a soil can sustain without
permitting large amounts of sattelements.

 Bedrock has the highest safe bearing capacity.

 Well graded gravel and sand that are confined and drained have a safe bearing capacity of 3,000 -
12,000 PSF.

 Silts and clays have lower safe bearing capacity of 1,000 – 4,000 PSF.

 Role of Foundations:

1. Transfer the building load to the ground.

2. Anchor building against wind and seismic load.
3. Isolate building from frost heaving.
4. Isolate building from expansive soils.
5. Holds building up from moisture.
6. Provide living spaces (basement, storage).
7. Houses mechanical systems.

Foundation configurations are: Slab on Grade, Crawl Space, and Basement.

Foundation Types:

Spread Footings:
 Used for most buildings where the loads are light and / or there are strong shallow soils.
 At columns there are single spot square pads where bearing walls have an elongation form. These are
almost always reinforced.

 These footing deliver the load directly to the supporting soils.

 Area of spread footing is obtained by dividing the applied force by the soils safe bearing capacity
(f=P/A).
  Generally suitable for low rise buildings (1-4 Stories).

 Requires firm soil conditions that are capable of supporting the building on the area of the spread
footings.

 When needed footings at columns can be connected together with grade beams to provide more lateral
stability in earthquakes.

 These are most widely used because they are most economical.

 Depth of footings should be below the top soil, and frost line, on compacted fill or firm native soil.

 Spread footings should be above the water table.

 Concrete spread footings are at least as thick as the width of the stem.

As the weight of the building increases in relation to the bearing capacity or depth of good bearing soil, the
footing needs to expand in size or different systems need to be used.

Drilled Piers or Caissons:

 For expansive soils with low to medium loads, or high loads with rock not too far down, drilled caissons
(piers) and grade beams can be used.
 The caissons might be straight or belled out at bottom to spread the load.

 The grade beam is designed to span across the piers and transfer the loads over to a column
foundation.

 Caissons deliver the load to soil of stronger capacity which is located not too far down.

Piles:
 for expansive soils or soils that are compressive with heavy loads where deep soils can not take the
building load and where soil of better capacity if found deep below.
 There are two types of piles.

1. Friction piles – used where there is no reasonable bearing stratum and they rely on resistance from skin of pile
against the soil.

2. End bearing – which transfer directly to soil of good bearing capacity.

 The bearing capacity of the piles depends on the structural strength of the pile itself or the strength of
the soil, whichever is less.
 Piles can be wood, steel, reinforced concrete, or cast in place concrete piles.

 Cast in place piles are composed of hole drilled in earth and then filled with concrete, it is used for light
loads on soft ground and where drilling will not cause collapse. Friction type, obtained from shaft
perimeter and surrounding earth.

Mat Foundations:
  Reinforced concrete raft or mats can be used for small light load buildings on very weak or expansive
soils such as clays.
 They are often post tensioned concrete.

 They allow the building to float on or in the soil like a raft.

 Can be used for buildings that are 10-20 stories tall where it provides resistance against overturning.

 Can be used where soil requires such a large bearing area and the footing might be spread to the extant
that it becomes more economical to pour one large slab (thick), more economical – less forms.

 It is used in lieu of driving piles because can be less expensive and less obtrusive (i.e. less impact on
surrounding areas).

 Usually used over expansive clays, silts to let foundation settle without great differences.

General Summery:

Ranking of Soil for foundations: (from best to unsuitable):

Sand & Gravel - Best

Medium & Hard Clays - Good
Silts & Soft Clays - Poor
Organic Silt and Clays - Undesirable
Peat - Unsuitable
 The greater the PI – Plasticity Index, Cohesiveness the greater the potential for shrinkage and swelling
usually characteristic of clay like soils.
 Non-cohesive are granular soils consisting of gravel and sands.

 Cohesive soils are silts and clays, and also organic.

 Differential settlements in concrete foundations should be limited to ¼ to ½” maximum.

 Generally cost of foundations are 5% of total construction cost.

 Most economical where safe bearing capacity is at least 3000 PSF – Spread Footings.

 Piles are most expensive, 2 or 3 times the price than Spread Footings.
The primary purpose of a dam may he defined as to provide for the safe retention and storage of water. As a
corollary to this every dam must rep-resent a design solution specific to the site circumstances The design
there¬fore represents an optimum balance of local technical and economic consideration at the time of
construction.

Reservoirs are readily classified in accordance with their primary purpose, e.g., irrigation. water supply.
hydroelectric power generation. river regulation, flood control, etc. Dams are of numerous types, and type
classification is sometimes less clearly defined. An initial broad classification into two generic groups can be
made in terms of the principal construction material employed.

1. Embankment dams are constructed of earthfill and/or rockfill. Upstream and downstream face shapes are
similar and of moderate angle, giving a wide section and a high construction volume relative to height

2. Concrete dams are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are dissimilar, generally steep downstream and
near vertical upstream, and dams have relatively slender profiles dependent upon the type.

The second group can he considered to include also older dams of appropriate structural type constructed in
masonry. The principal types of dams within the two generic groups are identified in the table below.

Embankment dams are numerically dominant for technical and eco-nomic reasons, and account for an estimated
85-90% of all dams built. Older and simpler in structural concept than the early masonry dam, the embankment
utilised locally available and untreated materials. As the embankment dam evolved it has proved to be
increasingly adaptable to a wide range of site environments in contrast, concrete dams and their many
predecessors are more demanding in relation to foundation con¬ditions. Additionally they have also proved to be
dependent upon relat¬ively advanced and expensive construction skills and plant.

Group Type %

Embankment dams Earthfill 82.9

Rockfill

Concrete dams Gravity 11.3

(including masonry dams) Arch 4.4

 Buttress 1.0

Multiple arch 0.4

Total Large* dams 36,235

(ICOLD 1998)

*Dams exceeding 15m in height or in the case of dams of 10-15m height, satisfying one of certain other criteria,
e.g. a storage volume in excess of 1x106 m3 or a flood discharge capacity of over 2000 m3/s.
Over 1900 were claimed by China and 5459 by the US. These figures may be compared with a worldwide total of
5196 large dams recorded in 1950.
Dams differ from all other major civil engineering structures in a number of important regards:

• every dam, large or small. is quite unique: foundation geology,

• material characteristics, catchment flood hydrology etc are each site¬ specific.
• dams are required to function at or close to their design loading for
• extended periods.
• dams do not have a structural lifespan; they may, however, have a
• notional life for accounting purposes, or a functional lifespan dictated¬ by reservoir sedimentation,
• the overwhelming majority of dams are of earth fill, constructed from
• a range of natural soils; these are the least consistent of construction

Dam engineering draws together a range of disciplines, e.g. structural and fluid mechanics, geology and
geotechnics, flood hydrology and hydraulics, to a quite unique degree. The engineering of dams is especially
dependent upon the application of informed engineering judgment. in summary, dam engineering is a distinctive,
broadly based and specialist discipline. The dam engineer is required to synthesise design solutions, which,
without compromise on safety, represent the optimal balance between technical, economic and environmental
considerations.

Embankment dam types and characteristics

The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from natural materials excavated or obtained close
by. The materials available are used to the best advantage in relation to their characteristics as an engi¬neered
bulk fill in defined zones within the dam section. The natural fill materials are placed and compacted without the
addition of any binding agent, using high capacity mechanical plant. Embankment construction is consequently
now am almost continuous and highly mechanized process, weather and soil conditions permitting, and is thus
plant intensive rather than labour intensive.

Embankment dams can be classified in broad terms as being earthfill or rockfill dams. The division between the
two embankment variants is not absolute, many dams utilising fill material of both types within appropriately
designated internal zones. Secondary embankment dams and a small minority of larger embankments may
employ a homogeneous section, but in the majority of instances embankments employ an impervious zone or
core combined with supporting shoulders which may be of relatively pervious material. The purpose of the latter
is entirely structural, providing stability to the impervious element and to the section as a whole.
Embankment dams can one of many types. depending upon how they utilise the available materials. The initial
classification into earthfill or rockfill embankments provides a convenient basis for considering the principal
variants employed.

1. Earthfill embankments.
An embankment may he categorised as an earthfill dam if compacted soils account for over 50% of the placed
volume of material. An earthfill dam is constructed primarily of selected engineering soils compacted uniformly
and intensively in relatively thin layers and at a controlled moisture content.
2. Rockfill embankments
If the rockfill embankment the section includes a discrete impervious element of compacted earthfill or a slender
concrete or bituminous membrane The designation rockfill embankment is appropriate where over 50% of The fill
material may be classified as rockfill. i.e. coarse grained frictional material. Modern practice is to specify a graded
rockfill. heavily compacted in relatively thin layers by heavy plant. The construction method is therefore
essentially similar to that for the earthfill embankment.

The terms zoned rockfill dam or earthfill/rockfill dam are meant to describe rockfill embankments incorporating
relatively wide impervious zones of compacted earthfill. Rockfill embankments employing a thin upstream
membrane of asphaltic concrete. reinforced concrete or other manufactured material are referred to as decked
rockfill dams.

The variants of earthfill and rockfill embankments employed in practice are too numerous to identify all
individually. The embankment dam possesses many outstanding merits which combine to ensure its continued
dominance as a generic type. The most important can be summarized as follows:

1. the suitability of the type to sites in wide valleys and relatively steep sided gorges alike:
2. adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions, ranging from competent rock to soft and compressible
or relatively pervious soil formations:
3. the use of natural materials, minimising the need to import or trans-port large quantities of processed materials
or cement to the site:
4. subject to satisfying essential design criteria, the embankment design is extremely flexible in its ability to
accommodate different fill mater-ial e.g. earthfills and/or rockfills. if suitably zoned internally:
5. the construction process is highly mechanized and is effectively con-tinuous:
6. largely in consequence of 5, the unit costs of earthfill and rockfill have risen much more slowly in real terms
than those for mass concrete;
7. properly designed, the embankment can safely accommodate an appreciable degree of settlement
deformation without risk of serious cracking and possible failure.

The relative disadvantages of the embankment dam are few. The most important include an inherently greater
susceptibility to damage or destruction by overtopping, with a consequent need to ensure adequate flood relief
and a seperate spillway, and vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or foundation.

Concrete dam types and characteristics

The principal variants of the modern concrete dam are defined overleaf:

Gravity dams
A concrete gravity dam is entirely dependent upon its own mass for stability The gravity profile is essentially
triangular, to ensure stability so to avoid overstressing of the dam or its foundation Some gravity dams are gently
curved in plan for aesthetic or other reasons. And without placing any reliance upon arch action for stability
Where a limited degree of arch action is deliberately introduced in design allowing a rather slimmer profile, the
term arched or arch gravity dam may be employed
Buttress dams
In structural concept the buttress dam consists of a continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by
down¬ stream buttresses The solid head or massive buttress dam, is the most prominent modern variant of the
type, and may be considered for conceptual purposes as a lightened version of the gravity dam.

Arch dams
The arch dam has a considerable upstream curvature Structurally it functions primarily as a horizontal arch.
Transmitting the major portion of the water Ioad to the abutments nr valley sides rather than to the floor of the
valley A relatively simple arch i e with horizontal curvature only and a constant upstream radius. It is structurally
more efficient than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing the volume of concrete required. A particular
derivative of the simple arch dam is the cupola or double¬ curvature arch dam. The cupola dam introduces
complex curvature in the vertical as well as the horizontal plane it is the most sophisticated of concrete dams,
being essentially a dome or shell structure, so is extremely economical in concrete. Abutment stability is critical to
the structural integrity and safety of both the cupola and the simple arch

Other concrete dams

A number of less common variants of the major types of concrete dams is illustrated in Fig can also be identified
They include hollow gravity, decked buttress. flat slab (Aburse) buttress, multiple arch, multiple cupola dams. The
type names are self explanatory, and the structural percentage of each as a derivative of one or other of the
principal types is obvious from the figures

The characteristics of concrete dams are outlined below with respect to the major types, i.e. gravity, massive
buttress and arch or cupola dams Certain characteristics are shared by all or most of these types: many are
however, specific to particular variants. Merits shared by most concrete dams include the following:

• Arch and cupola dams excepted, concrete dams are suitable to the site topography of wide or narrow valleys
alike, provided that a competent rock foundation is accessible at moderate depth.
For most of the fine grained soils (containing silt and clays) it might be sufficient to use simple spread footings, it
is largely depending on the magnitude of the load. The location of the foundations in relation to the soil (need to
be aware of foundation walls and hydrostatic pressure as moisture is present in the soil).

 If the soil is poor and structure loads are relatively heavy, then alternate methods are required.
 Pile foundations might be required in some cases where fine cohesive silt and clay soil is present. (CH,
OH).

 Sometimes it might be desirable and economically feasible to over excavate remove such soils that are
not of bearing capacity; can remove compact and fill back or import other engineered soil.

 The geotechnical engineer based on borings will recommend suitable foundations systems or
alternative solutions, also beating capacity, minimum depths, and special design or construction
procedures might be established.

 Safe bearing capacity of soil equals to the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a safety factor (usually 2-
4). ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the maximum unit pressure a soil can sustain without
permitting large amounts of sattelements.

 Bedrock has the highest safe bearing capacity.

  Well graded gravel and sand that are confined and drained have a safe bearing capacity of 3,000 -
12,000 PSF.

 Silts and clays have lower safe bearing capacity of 1,000 – 4,000 PSF.

 Role of Foundations:

1. Transfer the building load to the ground.

2. Anchor building against wind and seismic load.
3. Isolate building from frost heaving.
4. Isolate building from expansive soils.
5. Holds building up from moisture.
6. Provide living spaces (basement, storage).
7. Houses mechanical systems.

Foundation configurations are: Slab on Grade, Crawl Space, and Basement.

Foundation Types:

Spread Footings:
 Used for most buildings where the loads are light and / or there are strong shallow soils.
 At columns there are single spot square pads where bearing walls have an elongation form. These are
almost always reinforced.

 These footing deliver the load directly to the supporting soils.

 Area of spread footing is obtained by dividing the applied force by the soils safe bearing capacity
(f=P/A).

 Generally suitable for low rise buildings (1-4 Stories).

 Requires firm soil conditions that are capable of supporting the building on the area of the spread
footings.

 When needed footings at columns can be connected together with grade beams to provide more lateral
stability in earthquakes.

 These are most widely used because they are most economical.

 Depth of footings should be below the top soil, and frost line, on compacted fill or firm native soil.

 Spread footings should be above the water table.

 Concrete spread footings are at least as thick as the width of the stem.

As the weight of the building increases in relation to the bearing capacity or depth of good bearing soil, the
footing needs to expand in size or different systems need to be used.

Drilled Piers or Caissons:

  For expansive soils with low to medium loads, or high loads with rock not too far down, drilled caissons
(piers) and grade beams can be used.
 The caissons might be straight or belled out at bottom to spread the load.

 The grade beam is designed to span across the piers and transfer the loads over to a column
foundation.

 Caissons deliver the load to soil of stronger capacity which is located not too far down.

Piles:
 for expansive soils or soils that are compressive with heavy loads where deep soils can not take the
building load and where soil of better capacity if found deep below.
 There are two types of piles.

1. Friction piles – used where there is no reasonable bearing stratum and they rely on resistance from skin of pile
against the soil.

2. End bearing – which transfer directly to soil of good bearing capacity.

 The bearing capacity of the piles depends on the structural strength of the pile itself or the strength of
the soil, whichever is less.
 Piles can be wood, steel, reinforced concrete, or cast in place concrete piles.

 Cast in place piles are composed of hole drilled in earth and then filled with concrete, it is used for light
loads on soft ground and where drilling will not cause collapse. Friction type, obtained from shaft
perimeter and surrounding earth.

Mat Foundations:
 Reinforced concrete raft or mats can be used for small light load buildings on very weak or expansive
soils such as clays.
 They are often post tensioned concrete.

 They allow the building to float on or in the soil like a raft.

 Can be used for buildings that are 10-20 stories tall where it provides resistance against overturning.

 Can be used where soil requires such a large bearing area and the footing might be spread to the extant
that it becomes more economical to pour one large slab (thick), more economical – less forms.

 It is used in lieu of driving piles because can be less expensive and less obtrusive (i.e. less impact on
surrounding areas).

 Usually used over expansive clays, silts to let foundation settle without great differences.

General Summery:

Ranking of Soil for foundations: (from best to unsuitable):

Sand & Gravel - Best

Medium & Hard Clays - Good
Silts & Soft Clays - Poor
Organic Silt and Clays - Undesirable
Peat - Unsuitable
 The greater the PI – Plasticity Index, Cohesiveness the greater the potential for shrinkage and swelling
usually characteristic of clay like soils.
 Non-cohesive are granular soils consisting of gravel and sands.

 Cohesive soils are silts and clays, and also organic.

 Differential settlements in concrete foundations should be limited to ¼ to ½” maximum.

 Generally cost of foundations are 5% of total construction cost.

 Most economical where safe bearing capacity is at least 3000 PSF – Spread Footings.

 Piles are most expensive, 2 or 3 times the price than Spread Footings.

1. Repairs

The main purpose of the repair is to bring back the architectural shape of the building so
that all services start working and the functioning of the building is resumed quickly.
Repair does not pretend to improve the structural strength of the building and can be very
deceptive for meeting the strength requirements of the next earthquake.

The actions will include the following:

i. Patching up of defects such as cracks and fall of plaster.
ii. Repairing doors, windows, replacement of glass panes.

iii. Checking and repairing electric wiring.

iv. Checking and repairing gas popes, water pipes and plumbing services.

v. Rebuilding non-structural walls, smoke chimneys, boundary walls, etc.

vi. Re-plastering of walls as required.

vii. Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles.

viii. Relaying cracked flooring at ground level.

ix. Redecoration – whitewashing, painting, etc.

The architectural repairs as stated above do not restore the original strength of cracked
walls or columns and may sometimes be very illusive, since the redecorated building will
hide all the weaknesses and the building will suffer even more damage if shaken again by
shock since the original energy absorbing capacity will not be available.
 2. Restoration

It is the restitution of the strength the building had before the damage occurred. This type
of action must be undertaken when there is evidence that the structural damage can be
attributed to exceptional phenomena that are not likely to happen again and that the
original strength provides an adequate level of safety.

The main purpose of restoration is to carry out structural repairs to load bearing elements.
It may involve cutting portions of the elements and rebuilding them or simply adding more
structural materials so that the original strength is more or less restored. The process may
involve inserting temporary supports, underpinning etc. Some of the approaches are
stated below:

i. Removal of portions of cracked masonry walls and piers and rebuilding them in richer
mortar. Use of non-shrinking mortar will be preferable.
ii. Addition of reinforcing mesh on both faces of the cracked wall, holding it to the wall
through spikes or bolts and then covering it suitably. Several alternatives have been used.

iii. Injecting epoxy like material, which is strong in tension, into the cracks in walls, columns,
beams etc.

When structural repairs are considered necessary, these should be carried out prior
to or simultaneously with the architectural repairs so that total planning of work
could be done in a coordinated manner and wastage is avoided.

3. Strengthening of existing building

The seismic behavior of old existing buildings is affected by their original structural
inadequacies, material degradations due to time, and alterations carried out during use
over the years such as making new openings, addition of new parts inducing dissymmetry
in plan and elevation etc.

The possibility of substituting them with new earthquake resistant buildings is generally
neglected due to historical, artistic, social and economical reasons. The complete
replacement of the buildings in a given area will also lead to destroying a number of social
and human links. Therefore seismic strengthening of existing buildings can be a definite
requirement in same areas.

Strengthening is an improvement over the original strength when the evaluation of the
building indicates that the strength available before the damage was insufficient and
restoration alone will not be adequate in future quakes.

The extent of modifications must be determined by the general principles and design
methods available, and should not be limited to increasing the strength of members that
have been damaged, but should consider overall behavior of the structure. Commonly,
strengthening procedures should aim at one or more of the following objectives:
 i. Increasing lateral strength in one or both directions, by reinforcement or by increasing wall
areas or the number of walls.
ii. Giving unity to the structure by providing a proper connection between its resisting
elements, in such a way that inertia forces generated by the vibration of the members that
have the ability to resist them. Typical important aspects are the connections between
roofs or floors and walls between intersecting walls and between walls and foundations.

iii. Eliminating features that are the sources of weakness or that produce concentration of
stresses in some members. Asymmetrical plan distribution of resisting members, abrupt
changes of stiffness from one floor to the other, concentration of large masses, large
openings in walls without a proper peripheral reinforcement are examples of defect of this
kind.

iv. Avoiding the possibility of brittle modes of failures by proper reinforcement and connection
of resisting members. Since the cost may go to as high as 50 to 60% of the cost of the
building, the justification of such strengthening must be fully considered.