Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

The literature and studies mentioned in this chapter discuss different concepts, understandings, and
ideas as well as generalizations or conclusions related to the study of Allium sativum and Cymbopogon
citratus extract as organic mosquito pesticides. The information included in this chapter also helps to
familiarize readers with information that is relevant and similar to the current study.

2.1 Mosquito

Almost everyone has had the unpleasant experience of being bitten by a

mosquito. The red mark and itching from mosquito bites are the result of an allergic
reaction to the saliva of the insect. However, the transfer of dangerous illnesses and viruses
including Dengue virus, Zika, and malaria, which can have fatal and severely disabling effects,
may be a more significant outcome of some mosquito bites such as encephalitis, meningitis
and microcephaly (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2022) .

According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),
mosquito-borne diseases are those spread by the bite of an infected mosquito. Every
individual should take precautions against diseases that mosquitoes spread. However, some
persons have a moderate, transient disease or (rarely) a severe or long-term
illness after being bitten by an infected mosquito. Serious cases of illnesses spread by
mosquitoes can be fatal. When working in an area where mosquitoes are biting, people are at
risk. Different mosquito species can be found in various geographical regions, are most active at
various times, and transmit various diseases.
Azarmiet al. ( 2 0 1 9 ) claimed that diseases spread by mosquitoes continue to be a major
cause of sickness and mortality. 3. 3 billion. People are at risk for malaria in 1 06 countries and
territories, despitedecades of efforts to control the disease, making it a serious global public
health concern. In Sub-Saharan Africa, it is one of the major causes of mother and child
morbidity and mortality, including low birth weight, stillbirths, and premature infantdeath.
More than 50 of the 500 Anopheles species that have been identified worldwide can spread
malaria by the bite of a female Anopheles spp.
Mosquitoes are the vectors of many pathogens that continue to make a large impact on human
health. Current control measures for vector-borne infectious diseases are under threat and new
strategies, including genetic control, are urgently needed(Biedler et al., 201 5).

2.1.1 DENGUE

According to Mawis (2019) there has been a concerning increase in dengue cases in
the Philippines. The government of the nation has recommended the Filipino people to
adopt conventional measures to keep mosquitoes out of their houses due to the increased
likelihood of occurrences and deaths from diseases caused by mosquitoes. Dengue is a
viral disease transmitted primarily by female mosquitoes from the species Aedes
aegypti. It is considered as the most common arbovirus (arthropod-borne virus) infection
globally, with transmission occurring in at least 128 countries and almost 4 billion people
at risk.
The number of dengue cases reported annually to the World Health Organization
(WHO) has increased significantly from an average of less than a thousand cases
globally in the 1950s to more than 3 million cases in 2015. However, there has been a
substantial under-reporting of dengue within the health systems and to WHO, which
greatly underestimate the apparent global incidence rate estimated at about 50–100
million symptomatic cases per year. The transmission of dengue viruses is influenced by
population growth, urbanization, inadequate public health infrastructure, poor solid waste
management, environmental risk factors and inconsistent preventive practices, among
others.
Dengue virus (DENV) has four different serotypes and thus a person can be infected
more than once. Moreover, dengue can evolve into a more complex form of a disease
known as dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) or dengue shock syndrome, first recognized
in the 1950s during dengue epidemics in the Philippines, which can be fatal. In the
Philippines, epidemic dengue is considered one of its eight pervasive infectious diseases.
From 2008 to 2012, the country's Department of Health (DOH) reported 585,324 dengue
cases, with a case fatality rate (CFR) of 0.55% or 3195 deaths and ranks fourth in the
number of dengue cases among the 10 Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN).

2.1.2 Malaria

According to the World Health Organization (2018) Malaria is a severe disease

caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium, which is transmitted to humans by a bite of
an infected female mosquito of the species Anopheles. Malaria remains the leading cause
of mortality around the world, and early diagnosis and fast-acting treatment prevent
unwanted outcomes. It is the most common disease in Africa and some countries of Asia,
while in the developed world malaria occurs as imported from endemic areas. A global
battle against malaria started in 1955, and Croatia declared 1964 to be the year of
eradication of malaria. The World Health Organization carries out a malaria control
program on a global scale, focusing on local strengthening of primary health care, early
diagnosis of the disease, timely treatment, and disease prevention. Globally, the burden
of malaria is lower than ten years ago. However, in the last few years, there has been an
increase in the number of malaria cases around the world. It is moving towards targets
established by the WHO, but that progress has slowed down.

2.1.3 ZIKA

Zika virus is a single stranded RNA virus with two major lineages, Asian and African.
Arch Virol(2007) In Africa, Zika virus is thought to have been largely maintained in a
cycle involving transmission between non-human primates and mosquitoes, with humans
as occasional unintentional hosts. In areas outside Africa, however, humans have
probably become the main host. Zika Virus (ZIKV) is a Flavivirus transmitted primarily
via the bite of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Globally, 87 countries and territories
have recorded autochthonous mosquito-borne transmission of ZIKV as at July 2019 and
distributed across four of the six WHO Regions. Outbreaks of ZIKV infection peaked in
2016 and declined substantially throughout 2017 and 2018 in the Americas region. There
is the likely risk for ZIKV to spread to more countries. There is also the potential for the
re-emergence of ZIKV in all places with prior reports of the virus transmission. The
 current status of ZIKV transmission and spread is, however, a global health threat, and
from the aforementioned, has the potential to re-emerge as an epidemic.

2.2 ALLIUM SATIVUM (Garlic)

Allium Sativum (garlic) has been marketed for antimicrobial and antiparasitic properties. Garlic's
putative active components include a number of organosulfur compounds (e.g., allicin) as well as a
variety of nonsulfur compounds including steroid aponins and various organoselenium compounds (NRC
2009). The high sulfur content of garlic has been theorized to help cleanse the blood. In the horse
industry, garlic is primarily fed for purported insect repellent effects. Respiratory health benefits
(alterations in the physical properties of mucus) have also been claimed.The intact garlic bulb of the
garlic plant contains a complex mixture of cysteine sulfoxides, and γ-glutamylcysteines. When the bulb is
disrupted the sulfoxidases are cleaved to the active form of thiosulfinate allicin  Munday ( 2001). The
chemistry underlying any potential biological activity of the putative active compounds in garlic is
thought to be complex (NRC 2009).

2.3 CYMBOPOGON CITRATUS (Lemongrass)

Cymbopogon citrates staff is popularly known as citronella grass or lemongrass. This species belongs
to the Gramineae family, which comprises approximately 500 genus and 8,000 herb species (Barbosa
2008). Lemon grass is a tufted perennial grass growing to a height of 1 meter with numerous stiff leafy
stems arising from short rhizomatous roots. It has an economic lifespan for about 5 years (Carian 2005).
The leaf-blade is linear, tapered at both ends and can grow to a length of 50 cm and width of 1.5 cm.
The leaf-sheath is tubular in shape and acts as a pseudostem.
Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf is an herbal plant belonging to Poaceae. Commonly known as
lemongrass, this plant is used in traditional and modern medicine to cure different diseases, as it has anti-
inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties. Studies have shown that Cymbopogon citratus (DC) has
interesting uses in agronomy as a natural pesticide and insecticide. Its antifungal and antimicrobial
activities make it a plant of interest in many fields. Essential Oils, aqueous extracts, phenolic compounds
and other extracts from this plant are industrially and economically important. They are used in
perfumery, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals

2.4 ORGANIC PESTICIDE

Virginia Tech made detailed that organic pesticides are generally considered to be pesticides derived
from naturally occurring sources such as minerals, plants, or animals. These chemicals are broken down
relatively quickly by weather or soil microbes. Examples of organic pesticides include diatomaceous
earth (fossilized water microbes), neem oil (a tree oil extract), or pyrethrins (an extract from
chrysanthemums). A broader definition of an organic pesticide, is “a pesticide approved by the USDA for
use in organic agriculture.” The USDA makes distinctions about what can be used in organic farming
based largely on whether the compound is synthetic or non-synthetic. The USDA defines synthetic as “a
substance that is formulated or manufactured by a chemical process or by a process that chemically
changes a substance extracted from naturally occurring plant, animal, or mineral sources.” Synthetic
pesticides are often referred to as conventional pesticides.