virormantl management OXFORD Fracking is very controversial. The term fracking refers to how shalee rock is fractured (forced) apart by high pressure to release the gas and oil inside it. Water, sand and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure, widening the spaces in the rock, which allows the trapped gas and oil to flow out to the top of the well (Figure 2.29). Ninety per cent of what is forced down the well is water, hence the use of the term hydraulic fracturing on the diagram. water, sand and chemicals hydraulic 5 fracturing Fioure2.29 Shale gas extraction byfracking This is cutting-edge technology (i.e. new, beyond anything that has been achieved previously, and is still being developed and improved). The big technological breakthrough was horizontal drilling so that the well could follow the gas-bearing layer of shale rock. Environmental campaigners say that fracking is encouraging more reliance on fossil fuels at the expense of renewables. Obtaining more oil and gas by fracking will increase the number of years other resources will last compared with the estimates in Figure 2.2. INFORMATION BOX Advantages of fracking Disadvantages of fracking = Allows drilling of hard-to-reach gas There are significant environmental and oil resources. concerns including: = Ithas significantly boosted oil ele oreStarnourits of water; production in the USA and Canada. . = chemicals used may escape and = Increased supply contributed to the ere rastsicuindl wate fall in world market prices of oil and There are worries that the fracking fi 2014, ere process can cause small earth tremors.‘CHAPTER Energy and the environment Explain what is meant by fracking, How isit different from drilling for oil and gas? People either love it or hate it: what makes fracking such a controversial energy issue? Impact of oil pollution : Although the increasing signs of pollution in the open oceans are a great concern, many ers are stil relatively clean compared with coastal regions. This is because over 75 per cent I6f marine pollution comes from the land: the rest mainly comes from dumping from ships, Sed from offshore mining and oil production. Taste 2.5 Sources of marine ol pollution or... Land (about 50%) transport, heavy machinery, and industry Shipping (about 33%) oil tanker operations and other shipping discharges Offshore oil industries, drilling and well leaks, transport spills Fors long as oil has been drilled, there have been accidents and oil spills. The mining Redustry has always been associated with making a quick profit and moving on before the Sevironmental damage becomes obvious to all. For many years environmental issues were Sen a low priority by the oil companies in their drive to ney. Over the years, Bowever, although often as a result of pressure from environmental groups plus government Sefety regulations, the oil companies have had to become more safety conscious,and risk Beerse. In one way new technology has helped; leaks and spills are more avoidable than Fee: In another way, it has allowed drilling operations to move into more challen. Sevironments, such as deep-water ocean drilling, where risks are higher. One result was the Beepwater Horizon well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 (Case study, pages 68-70). The risk of cil pollution is present at al stages of oil company operations, A Drilling for oil-from well leaks, oil S¢eping.to the surface, well blowouts & Transporting the crude oll-from pipeline leaks, pipeline sabotage (deliberate breaking of the pipes due to war, terrorism, or hostility of local communities), tanker accidents (especially in coastal areas) © Oil refining-leaks into coastal waters and explosions OXFORD(millions of gallons) 260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 Exxon Valdez tanker spill, Alaska 1989 Toney Amoco ABT Castillo Nownuz —Atlantic—‘xtoc1_—“Deepwater Oil Canyon Cadiz. Summer _—de Bellver oilfield, Express well Horizon terminals tanker tanker ~— tanker ~— tanker = Arabian tanker ~—low-out, well blow. /tankers spill, spill, spill, spill South Gulf spill, Mexico out, Gulf during the Brittany Brittany Angola. =—«fca’ == 1983—=‘Tobago’ «1979 of Mexico Gulf War, 1967 197819711983 1979 20101991 Figure 2.30 Some major marine ol spills(1967-2010) The impact of marine oil spills is immediate and easy to observe (Figure 2.30). Marine life is devastated throughout the area affected. Tourist beaches are ruined; the smell is strong and unpleasant, and lingers for a long time, keeping visitors away. Fishing is another coastal economic activity which is wiped out by an oil spill. Look at the Deepwater Horizon case study to discover the many impacts (environmental, economic, and social) that a large oil spill can cause. The impact of oil spills lasts longest in cold environments, where ecological recovery is slow. Long-term consequences are serious because only slow growth is possible, for a short period each year. The amount of oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez into Prince William Sound in Alaska in 1989, one of the richest fishing areas in the world, was relatively small (Figure 2.30). Yet 25 years later, the coastal and marine ecosystems have not made a full recovery.INFORMATION BOX Impacts of oil spills on ecosystems * Birds: oil covers their feathers, reduces insulating properties, impedes flight, and the ability to seek out food. ® Marine mammals: oil can smothe small mammals, reducing insulating properties of fur; most affected are sea surface animals like sea otters. * Coral reefs: oil can kill or impede reproduction and growth, depending on amount of spill and length of time the spill lasts; it also affects many species of fish and crabs that live in and around the reefs, * Beach life: oil spills smother shoreline creatures like shellfish, and stop many bird species from feeding; flight and mobility of shore-based wading birds are greatly reduced. CHAPTER’ Energy andthe environment 63 Which areas are most at risk? Pollution risks are ver estuaries, where wave action is weak so that pollutants sily. Narrow and re at high risk icted. The Arabian ples. highest in sheltered bays ar can concent! enclosed seas and gulfs because water flo Gulf and Mediterranea The Arabian Gulfis the world's largest oil producing region; its many oil rigs and tanker terminals are potential sources of marine pollution on a large scale. Political instability in the region is another factor: deliberate sabotage of Kuwaiti ol fields by Iraq during the Gulf War in 1991 showed how vulnerable the 1. The st enclosed sea. itis Gulfis to a major pollution dis: Mediter orld’s most important routes for oil tankers between the and Straits of Gibraltar. increased the size of the S more, and larger, super through. Large ri Rhone emg the Nile and the sea. Since the Mediterranean Basin is ated and a great tourist risks to economic activities are