Introduction

 Electrical power can be transmitted or distributed either by

overhead lines (OHL) or underground cables (UGC).

 Given a particular power to be transmitted at a particular power

factor, high voltage transmission results in low currents along the
transmission line.

 Thus high voltage transmission requires conductors of smaller cross-

section, which results in economy in conductor material, i.e.,
copper or aluminum.

 But at the same time, cost of insulating the line and other expenses
are increased.
1
 Merits and Demerits of OHL Systems
MERITS of OHL
1. It is much easier to trace, locate or localize a fault that occurs on an
OHL.
2. For distributors, tapping can be made at any time without any
disturbance, which is of great importance in rapidly developing
areas.
3. Power transmission over waterlogged or muddy areas is much easier
with OHL
DEMERITS of OHL
1. They mar the beauty of the surroundings
2. OHLs are susceptible to unfavourable weather conditions and other
external interferences (such as lightning strikes, rain, wind,
temperature, air pollution)

2
 Merits and Demerits of UGC Systems
MERITS of UGC
1. Useful in densely populated and lightning-prone areas, where
safety and beauty play greater roles in power distribution
considerations
2. UGC systems are less liable to damage through storms or
lightning or even willful damage,
3. As a result, they offer safer guarantee of supply
4. By virtue of their construction, UGC offers better attenuation of
power surges
5. UGC offers better voltage regulation than OHL, because due to
the very small spacing of their cores, they have very low
inductance and hence experience low inductive drops.
3
 Merits and Demerits of UGC Systems (2)

DEMERITS of UGC

 UGC systems entail heavy cost (cost of trenching, expensive

jointing necessary in case of repairs, etc.)
 It is more difficult to provide proper insulation to cables to
withstand higher voltages
 The tracing or localization of fault is more difficult and time-
consuming compared to OHL

4
OVERHEAD LINE DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
 Overhead Line Design (2)

 Besides, OHLs ensure power transfer or transmission, and so

proper electrical design considerations are needed for
standard performance.

 The mechanical and electrical design criteria or considerations

would be treated separately in detail in the ensuing slides

6
 Mechanical Design Considerations of An
Overhead Line (OHL)
• In this section, we shall look at the following:

 Components of an OHL

 General mechanical design criteria or factors

7
 Components of An Overhead Line

• The main components of an OHL are:

1. Conductor and shield wire

2. Steel structure / tower/Support
3. Insulator
4. Hardware and fittings
5. Foundation and grounding system

8
 Conductor And Shield Wire (5)
- NOTES -
 NOTE: All the above requirements cannot be found or met in a single
material.

 Therefore, in selecting a conductor material for a particular case, a

compromise must be made between the desire for low cost and the
required electrical and mechanical properties

 The TWO MOST POPULAR TYPES of conductors are COPPER and ALUMINUM.

 NOTE: STEEL has been used, but it has the obvious LIMITATIONS of (i)poor
conductivity and (ii)high susceptibility to corrosion.

9
 Conductor Compositions / Configurations
A number of conductor configurations are available nowadays to meet a
variety of requirements.
⚫ They are made up of layers of stranded aluminum wire, which
conduct the current, and wound around a core of steel strands, which
provide the mechanical strength for the whole conductor.
⚫ The number of strands in the core depends on the size.
⚫ Because different stranding combinations of aluminum and steel
wires can be used, it is possible to vary the proportions aluminum and
steel to achieve different ranges of current carrying capacities and
mechanical tensile strength, respectively.
10
 Conductor Compositions / Configurations

 A number of conductor configurations are available

nowadays to meet a variety of requirements.
 ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
 ACSS – Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported
 ACCC – Aluminum Conductor Composite Core
 AAAC – All Aluminum Alloy Conductor

11
 Conductor And Shield Wire
- Uses of the Shield Wire -
 The shield wire is also referred to as overhead earth wire (OHEW) or
overhead ground wire (OHGW), and offers a number of advantages
including:
i. They provide a superior earth path, in the case of phase to earth
faults.
ii. The OHEW also helps to even out the earthing systems on structures
and keep the average resistance of the structures taken over a max
of 3 to below 10 ohms or 5 ohms when within 5 km of a switchyard.
iii. The OHEW affords greater safety to operatives via employment of
drain earthing schemes.
iv. The OHEW can also provide a valuable route for power line
communication (PLC) & control of the network, though an Optical
Ground Wire (OPGW) design is ideal
12
 Steel Structure/ Tower/Support
- Uses -
 The steel structures are of different types or geometric configurations

 They are meant to support the conductors and insulators.

 In certain weather imposed conditions (mainly causes by wind or ice),

they support themselves (through the use of guys/stay wires).

 They must be able to isolate the high transmission voltage from public
activity

 They must also provide safety to the utility workers.

13
 Steel Structure / Lattice Tower (3)
- Properties -
1. High mechanical strength – to withstand the weight of
conductors, loading due to wind and/or ice;
2. Ability to withstand severe climatic conditions
3. Light weight without loss in mechanical strength;
4. Affordable cost and economical to maintain;
5. Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance;
6. Longer lifespan

14
 Insulators

Desirable properties of insulators Types of insulators

1. High mechanical strength • The most common types of

2. High electrical resistance insulators are;
3. High dielectric strength or
relative permittivity 1. pin type
4. Non-porous, free from 2. strain insulators
impurities and cracks, so as 3. shackle insulator and
not to lower the permittivity
4. suspension type
5. High ratio of puncture strength
to flashover

15
 Insulators
- Uses -
 Electrically,
i. Insulators are used for insulating the energized conductors from the
steel towers;
ii. They act as physical support for the conductors;
iii. They provide sufficient insulation against phase-structure flashover.
 Mechanically,
1. Insulators also provide mechanical strength to withstand wind and ice
loads;
2. They also provide strength to withstand conductor tension and weight.

16
 Insulators (2) – Pin Type
1. PIN-TYPE

▪ Pin type insulators are used for voltages up to 33 kV.

▪ Pin type insulators have the disadvantage that the conductor runs on top
of the insulator and is therefore exposed to lightning.
▪ Too bulky and
▪ thus uneconomical for higher voltages above 33 kV

17
 Insulators (3) – Strain type

2. STRAIN INSULATORS
⮚They are employed at dead end corners or
sharp curves, where the line is subject to
greater tension.
⮚A strain insulator may be inserted between
two lengths of wire to isolate them
electrically from each other while
maintaining a mechanical connection,
⮚or where a wire attaches to a pole or tower,
to transmit the pull of the wire to the support
while insulating it electrically

• NOTE: For low voltage lines, say up to 11 kV,

shackle insulators are used as strain
insulators
18
 Insulators (4) – Shackle type
3. SHACKLE INSULATOR

 Shackle insulator is usually used in low voltage distribution network,

 it can be use both in vertical position and horizontal position,

19
 Insulators (5) – Suspension string type
 Suspension type insulators are
cheaper than pin type insulators
for voltages higher than 33 kV.
 They are generally used with
steel towers.
 Ease of selecting the number of
discs for a particular voltage
 If any one disc is damaged, the
whole string does not become
useless because the damaged
disc can be easily replaced
 The suspension arrangement
provides greater flexibility to the
line
20
 Insulators (7)
- Selection Criteria -
 ELECTRICAL
 Wet and dry flashover;
 Power frequency;
 Impulse withstand voltage;
 Basic insulation level (BIL);
 Pollution level resistance

 MECHANICAL
 Mechanical strength to withstand wind and ice loads;
 Tensile strength to withstand conductor tension and weight.

21
 Sag in overhead lines

 When a conductor is suspended between two supports at the same level, the
sag-span curve approaches that of a parabola,

 Conductor sag and tension are important considerations in the mechanical design of
overhead lines

 Tension in the conductor material must be low to avoid mechanical failure

 Sag should be kept minimum in order to reduce conductor material required, as well
as avoid extra pole height for sufficient conductor clearance above ground level

 Sag and stresses vary with temperature on account of thermal expansion and
22
contraction of the line conductors
 Sag in overhead lines (2)

 The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially, and so

the tension at the minimum point of sag is horizontal.

 The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of

the wire

 The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension

acting at any point on the wire.

23
Sag calculation for equal supports
• Let
𝑙 = length of span
= weight per unit length of conductor
𝑇= tension in the conductor
𝑂 = reference point for measuring the
coordinates of different points on the
conductor.
• Then the two forces acting on the portion OP
of the conductor are:
⮚ The weight of the conductor acting at
a distance from O.
⮚ The tension acting at O.
• Mathematically

24
 Sag calculation for equal supports (2)
• For the minimum sag, the coordinates are and

• Substituting,

• Sag is therefore dependent on the following:

1. combined weight/force acting on the conductor
2. square of the span
3. inverse of the tension in the line
• Hence the following deductions can be made from the sag equation:
⮚the longer the span, the more the sag (HV lines have greater span, and
hence more sag)
⮚the greater the tension, the smaller the sag and hence better
⮚the bigger the combined weight or the heavier the conductor, the more the
sag. Thus Cu lines have more sag than Al, because Cu is heavier. 25
Effect of wind and ice loading on sag
calculation

• Ice coating acts vertically

downwards
• Wind loading acts horizontally, i.e.,
at right angles to the projected
surface of the conductor
• If is the weight of ice per unit
length
• the weight of conductor per
unit length
• the total weight of conductor
per unit length,
• Then
26
 Corona Discharge
⚫ When an alternating potential difference is applied across two
conductors whose spacing is large compared to their diameters,
⚫ there is no apparent change in the condition of the
atmospheric air surrounding the wires, if the applied voltage is low
⚫ However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value,
called the critical disruptive voltage,
⚫ the conductors are surrounded by a faint luminous glow of
bluish colour called corona

27
 Characteristics of Corona
The phenomenon of corona is always accompanied by:
1. a faint luminous glow of bluish colour

2. a hissing sound production

3. production of ozone which is easily detected because of its

characteristic odour and
4. radio interference

28
 Disadvantages of Corona
1. Corona is accompanied by loss of energy (dissipation of power).
2. Ozone produced as a result of corona may react chemically
with the conductor and cause corrosion of the conductor.
3. Corona may cause interference with neighboring circuits due to
electromagnetic and electrostatic induction.
4. Such a shape of corona current tends to introduce a large third
harmonic component
5. The intense ionization of the air reduces its dielectric strength
and makes it easier for flashover to occur in insulators and
between phases.

29
 Conductor Motions

 Due to blowing winds, the conductor is subjected to forces which

make the conductor to experience a variety of motions .

 Some of the conductor motions are:

1. Uplift
2. Galloping
3. Aeolian vibration

30
 Conductor Motions (2)
-Uplift-
 Uplift conditions usually exist in highly varied terrains or mountainous areas,
where steep inclined spans occur.
 Under those uplift conditions, when the lowest point of the cold curve sag falls
ABOVE the lower tower structure, the conductor in the uphill span exerts an
UPWARD PULL (negative span) on the lower tower, and is called uplift.

31
 Conductor Motions (5)
-Galloping-
 Galloping is a condition of low-frequency, very large-amplitude
vibration of transmission line conductor.

 The frequency of vibration is about 1 Hz, and the vertical amplitude

can reach 1 meter.

 The galloping phenomenon is sometimes also referred to as

CONDUCTOR DANCING.

 It usually occurs as a result of a combined effect of heavy ice and

moderate or heavy but steady winds acting on the conductor.
32
 Conductor Motions (6)
-Galloping Consequences-
 Galloping can have any of the following CONSEQUENCES:

1. Conductor damage at the point of insulator string

2. Phase-to-phase faults
3. Phase-to-ground wire faults
4. Increased sag because of overstressed conductor.
5. Possibility of damage of the entire structure, a very rare case
though.

33
 Conductor Motions (7)
-Galloping Mitigation-
Some galloping mitigating measures include:
1. Increase of conductor tension

2. Use of interphase spacers, which have the following characteristics

i. Light and flexible
ii. High fatigue performance
iii. Resistant to deformation under compressive forces
iv. Easy and quick to install

34
AEOLIAN VIBRATION
 Conductor Motions (8)
-Aeolian Vibration-
 Aeolian vibration is a low-amplitude, high-frequency phenomenon.
 The frequency is usually between 5 and 150 Hz
 Aeolian vibration is one of the most important problems in
transmission lines because it represents the major cause of fatigue
failure of conductor strands or of items associated with the support,
use, and protection of the conductor

36
 Conductor Motions (9)
-Aeolian Vibration (2)-
 In this phenomenon, vibration amplitudes cause serious fatigue of
the conductor strands due to stress-related bending.
 The amplitude can reach a maximum value of about one conductor
diameter (peak-to-peak)
 The conductor strand fatigue failures occur:
 at the suspension clamps or
 at the clamps of the other devices installed on the conductor
such as spacers, spacer dampers, dampers and other devices.

37
 Underground Cable
Design Considerations
 Underground HV cables are employed in areas where it is impractical to
use overhead lines

 Conductor used in cables should be thinned stranded and of high

conductivity.

 Conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load
current without overheating

38
 Underground Cable
Design Considerations (2)

 The cable must have proper thickness of insulation.

 The cable must have suitable mechanical protection so that it

can withstand rough use when laying them.

 The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be

such that there is complete chemical and physical stability
throughout its length

39
 Structure of Underground Power Cables
• The main components of an HV energy
cable are the following:
 core
 insulation
 sheath
 bedding
 armouring
 serving

40
 Structure of Underground Power Cables (3) -
Insulation
INSULATION:
 Around each core or conductor is provided a suitable thickness of
insulation.
 The thickness of the insulation layer depends on the voltage to be
withstood by the cable
 The historical advancement of insulating materials:
i. Oil-impregnated paper-laminated tapes
ii. Rubber mineral compound
iii. Varnished cloth, laminated tapes
iv. Thermoplastic compounds : e.g. PVC, PE
v. Thermosetting compounds: e.g., XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene)
41
Structure of Underground Cables (5) – Armour & Serving
 ARMOUR
 An armoured layer is provided over the bedding layer, which consists of
one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape
 Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it
and during the course of handling.
 Armouring and bedding may be combined in some cables

 SERVING
 This is the outermost layer over the armour, made of a layer of fibrous
material (like jute) similar to the bedding.
 It protects the armoured layer from atmospheric conditions

42
 Specification of
underground cables
 Underground cables are specified according to the
following, amongst others
The number of cores (3-core for HV cable, 4-core for LV cable)
1.
2. Type of core (Al, Cu, etc.)
3. Cross-sectional area
4. Voltage and frequency for which they are manufactured
5. Insulating material/electrical protection (PVC, PE, XLPE, etc.)
6. Mechanical protection (sheathed, armoured)

Example:
 3x185mm2 132 kV 50 Hz XLPE-insulated PVC-armoured underground
Cu cable
43
 Classification of underground cables
• Underground cables may be classified according to either of the
following:
1. Type of insulating material
2. Voltage for which they are manufactured (mostly preferred)

• Per the voltage classification method, cables can be classified as:

1. Low tension (LT) cables – up to 1,000 V
2. High tension (HT) cables – up to 11 kV
3. Super tension (ST) cables – from 22 kV to 33 kV
4. Extra high (EHT) cables – from 33 kV to 66 kV
5. Extra super voltage (ESV) cables – beyond 132

44
 Installation of underground cables
 Cables are usually installed under the surface for all the urban
applications involving the distribution systems.
 In generating stations and certain other applications, the cables
are installed in aerial trays.
 In the under-the-surface burials, the following installation practices
are commonly used:
 Directly buried cables in LV applications
 Burial underground using ducts
 Burial underground using concrete encasings
 Underwater submarine cables

45
 Electric stress in cables

 Usually an electrostatic field is set up in the insulating medium

between two good conductors.
 A single-core cable with metallic sheath has the same electrostatic
field as a pair of concentric cylinders.
 The electrostatic field between two concentric conducting cylinders (e.g.
the field in the insulation medium between core and sheath) is illustrated
in the Fig below:

46
 Electric stress in cables (2)
 The boundary equi-potentials are concentric cylinders of radii and , where
 = inner or core radius of cable
 = outer or internal sheath radius of cable
 = + thickness of insulation
 The electric stress in the cable is given as:

 Notes:
 From the relation, the electric stress at any point r in the dielectric varies inversely
as r,
 Thus in a homogenous insulation, the dielectric is not uniformly stressed at all
radii 47
 Electric stress in cables (3)
• The boundary equi-potentials are concentric cylinders of radii and , where
• = inner or core radius of cable
• = outer or internal sheath radius of cable
• = + thickness of insulation
• The electric stress in the cable is given as:

• Notes:
• From the relation, the electric stress at any point r in the dielectric varies
inversely as r, and
• The stress is maximum when (inside insulation) and minimum when
(inside armouring)
48
 Heat transfer in Underground Cables
 The losses in the various cable components cumulatively produce heat
in the cable;
 The heat generated is dissipated or transferred to the surroundings by
means of:
 Conduction;
 Convection; and
 Radiation

 The most common mode of heat transfer in a cable is conduction.

 If more than one single-core cable is laid together (as is required for
three phase systems exceeding 150 kV), the heat produced by one
conductor affects the other

49
 Heat transfer in Underground Cables (2)
 The heat transfer is effected through so-called thermal resistances.
 Moreover, the heat transfer gives rise to temperature gradient
 The maximum allowable temperature rise between core and
surroundings is:
 limited by the maximum current-carrying capacity (or ampacity) of the
cable; and
 influenced by the thermal resistances.

 In the further treatment of heat transfer in cables, we take a look at the

following:
 Thermal resistances of cables;
 Ampacity of cables;
 Temperature rise in cables.

50
 Thermal Resistances of Cables
 The heat generated by the losses in the various cable components are
conducted through the thermal resistances.
 The flow of heat can be considered analogous to the flow of charge or
current in the insulation.
 The thermal resistance of the cable and surroundings is measured in terms of
the thermal ohm.
 Thermal Ohm: It is the resistance of a heat path through which a temperature
difference of 1 deg. C produces a heat flow of 1 watt.
 Thermal Resistivity: It is the temperature drop (in deg. C) produced by the
flow of 1 watt between the opposite faces of a metre cube of the material.

51
 Thermal Resistances of Cables (2)
 The thermal resistance is given as

 where
 = thickness of the material [m]
 = cross-sectional area [sq. m]
 = thermal conductivity [W/m-deg.C]
 The inverse of the thermal conductivity is the thermal resistivity (
)
 The thermal resistance can thus be re-written in terms of the thermal
resistivity as

52
 Thermal Resistances of Cables (3)
 The thermal resistances comprise the following:
(i) cable insulation, (ii) jacket, (iii) air space in the conduit, (iv)conduit, and
(vi)surrounding earth/backfill material.
 Insulation thermal resistance:
 The cable insulation is a good thermal insulation as well as an electrical
insulation.
 Some of the material used as the cable insulation are:
 (i) polyvinyl chloride (PVC), (ii)polyethylene (PE), (iii)cross linked
polyethylene (XLPE), (iv)ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) and
(v)polypropylene film laminated to paper
 It offers thermal resistance to the heat generated by the conductor due
to the core losses and partly to the dielectric losses.
53