ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

31

CONDUCTORS are materials which allow the free flow of electrons through them. Metals generally
have the least resistance in the flow of electric current. The best conductors are precious metals, such
as silver, gold and platinum. Copper and aluminum are the most commonly used materials for
conductors. However, since aluminum forms an oxide layer which is poorly conductive, aluminum is
restricted to small wires while copper is preferred in all conductor types.

3.1.1 TYPES OF CONDUCTORS: Conductors are of three (3) types:,

1. Wires are single Insulated conductors No. 8 AWG (American Wire Gauge or smaller, for the English
System, it is the B & S Gauge or Browne and Sharpe Gauge. The smallest size of wire permitted is No.
14

2 Cable are single insulated conductors No. 6 AWG or larger, or they may be several conductors of any
size assembled into a single unit. Wires and cables are either solid or stranded. A stranded wire
consists of a group of wires twisted to form a metallic string. A cord is an insulated stranded wire, such
as the cord of a flat iron. 3. Bus Bars-large conductors which are not circular in cross section

and usually found only to supply the main switch boards.

3.1.2 CONDUCTOR SIZES-AWG/MCM STANDARD

All conductor sizes from No. 18 (or AWG 1) to No. 10 (AWG No. 0000, also designated 4/0) are expressed
in AWG. Beyond AWG No. 4/0, a different designation, MCM (or thousand circular mil) is used. in this
designation, the smallest MCM size is 250 MCM or and the biggest is 500 MCM.
A circular MIL is an artificial area measurement, representing the square of the cable diameter (diam")
when the diameter is expressed in mils (thousands of an inch). Thus a solid conductor ½ inch in
diameter is 500 mils in diameter, or 250,000 circular mils in area, (500) or 250 MCM; thus CM/1000 diam
(500)/1000 250,000/1000 = 250 MCM In the metric system, conductor sizes are given simply as the
diameter in millimeters (mm).

3.1.3 CONDUCTOR AMPACITY

Conductor current carrying capacity or ampacity is the maximum operating temperature that its
Insulation can stand continuously Heat is generated as a result of the current flowing and the
conductor resistance. When conductors are placed in an enclosed conduit, the heat generated is not
as easily dissipated as it would be if the conductor were free in the air Thus, the current rating of a
conductor in free air is much higher than that for the same were it in a conduit

3.14 TYPES OF CABLES

1 Armored Cable (Type AC) a fabricated assembly of insulated conductors enclosed in flexible metal
sheath. The most common type of AC run without raceways is the NEC type flexible armored cable
known by the trade name BX

32 INSULATORS- are materials which prevent the flow of electrons through them Giating properubber
of porcelain, the materials which prevent the flove compounds exhibit this inserting property and
Common examples are rubber and plastic wire are therefore uself to insulate electric conductors.
coverings, porcelain lamp sockets and oil immersed switches.

Insulation is rated by voltage, for example, 300 V, 600 V, 1000 V, 3000 V. arcing with the possibility 5000
V and 15000 V If insulation is used above its recommended voltage rating. it may break down causing
short circuits and of fire starting. Ordinary building wiring is usually rated for 300 V and 600 V.

In general there are the unjacketed and the Jacketed types. The unjacketed conductors are those
which consist of a copper insulation (thermoplastic) of TW (Moisture-resistant Thermoplastic). The
Jacketed ones are the THHN (Heat-resistant thermoplastic) and the THWN (Moisture and heat-
resistant thermoplastic) both of which have a nylon jacket designated as N. The common types of
insulation are:, conductor covered with
3.3 CONDUITS-are circular raceways used to enclose wires and cables and are of metal or plastic (PVC)

3.3.1 PURPOSE OF CONDUITS

1. To protect the enclosed conductors from mechanical injury and chemical damage 2. To protect
people frorq shock hazards by providing a grounded enclosure.

3. To provide a system ground path.

4. To protect the surroundings against fire hazard as a result of overheating or short circuiting of the
enclosed conductors.

5. To support the conductors.

3.3.2 TYPES OF STEEL CONDUITS - There are three types of steel conduits that differ basically in their
wall thicknesses, these are:

1.Heavy-wall steel conduits called "Rigid Steel Conduits or RSC with an approximate thickness of
0.117 mm.

2.Intermediate Metal Conduit or IMC with thickness of 0.071 mm

3.Thin-wall steel conduits named "Electric Metal Tubing or EMT

RSCs and IMCs use the same fitting, called condulets, and are threaded alike at the joints EMTs are not
threaded but use set screw and pressure fiting and are not recommended for embedding in concreta
nor permitted in hazardous areas. IMCs yield a larger inside diameter (ID) for easier wire pulling and is
lighter than the RSC

Standard length of steel conduits is 3 M or 10 ft.

When steel conduits are installed in direct contact with the earth, it is advisable to use the hot-dip
galvanized type and to coat the joints with asphaltum.

3.4 RACEWAYS are channels or wiring accessories so designed for holding wires, cables and busbars
that are either made of metal, plastic, or any insulating medium.

1. FLOOR RACEWAYS

a.) underfloor raceways b) cellular metal floor raceways

c.) cellular concrete floor raceways (precast)

2. CEILING RACEWAYS

a.) Header ducts (wireways)

B.) Distribution ducis (laterals)

3.5 OUTLETS and RECEPTACLES- An outlet is a point in the wiring system at which current is taken to
supply utilization equipment. It refers only to the box. A receptacle is the wiring device in which the
utilization equipment (appliance) cord is plugged Into

3.5.1 KINDS OF OUTLETS

1 Convenience Outlet or Attachment Cap the complete set-up which establishes connection between
the conductor of the flexible cord and the conductors connected permanently to the receptacle. The
common wall outlet is a convenience outlet

2. Lighting Outlet is an outlet intended for direct connection to a lamp holder, lighting fixture, or
pendant cord terminating in a lamp. holder

3. Receptacle Outlet is an outlet where one or more receptacles are installed.

SWITCHES-are devices for making, breaking, or changing conditions in an selectrical circuit under the
conditions of load which they are rated. Switches are rated according to current and voltage, duty,
poles and throw, fusibility and enclosure. Switches may be classified as follows

3.6.1 TYPE OF SWITCH-ACCORDING TO VOLTAGE

Switches are rated as 250V, 600V, or 5KV as required.

3.6.2 TYPE OF SWITCH-ACCORDING TO INTENSITY OF USE

1. Normal Duty (ND) - intended for normal use in light and power circuits as in general-purpose
switches

2. Heavy Duty (HD) - intended for frequent interrupting

3. Light Duty (LD)-intended to connect the loads occasionally, such as service switches

3.6.3 TYPE OF SWITCH-ACCORDING TO TYPE OF SERVICE

1. Service Switch - intended to disconnect all the electric service in the building except emergency
equipment. This may comprise one to six properly rated switches that are assembled into a
switchboard

2. Power Switches-

a) General-purpose switches are intended for use in general distribution and branch

b) Disconnecting or isolating switches are intended for disconnecting or isolating circuits Used for
letilts rated at more than 600 volts

3. Wiring Switches-include all the relatively small switches that are employed in interior wiring
installations for the control of branch circuits, individual lamps or appliances.

a) General-purpose switches are single-pole or double-pole switches for the general purpose use of
connecting or cutting-off circuits for the control of lamps or other loads from a single point

b) Three-way switches are used where it is desired to control lamps from two different points, as in a
stairwell

c) Four way switches are used in conjunction with two 3-wire switches where it is desired to control
lamps from three or more desired points.

d) Electrolier or multi-circuit switches are used for the control of lights in multi-lamp fixtures so that
one lamp or set of lamps may be tumed on alone or in combination with other lamps

e) Momentary contact switches are used where it is desired to connect or cut-off a rcult for only a
short duration. The switch is provided with a spring so that it will return to its original position as soon
as the handle or button is released

f) Dimmer switches theostat or similar device for regulating the intensity of an in Tight without
appreciably afflecting spatial distribution. Also called a dimmer. Wiring switches may either be the
flush type, surface type or the pendant type.

3.6.4 TYPE OF SWITCH-ACCORDING TO OPERATION MECHANISM

Wiring switches may also be classified according to the operating mechanism as

1. Rotary switch 2 Push-button switch

3. Toggle or tumbler switch

3.6.5 TYPE OF SWITCH-ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF POLES AND THROWS

1 Poled-1 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS -that part of the switch which is used for making or
breaking of a connection.

and ated from other contact making or breaking parts. Switcties are which is electrically insulated
available in 1. 2,34 and & pole construction

2. Throw a single throw switch is one which will make a closed circuit only when the Thrown in one
position A double throw switch will make a closed circult when thrown in either of from one source to
two positions. Double throw switches are often used to transfer a lead another as for example from
normal to emergency supply or feeder to an alternate y or from one switch is inrov

3.6.6 SPECIAL SWITCHES

1. Time Controlled Switches - This device comprises a precision low speed miniature drivir motor
(timer) to which some type of electric contact-making device is connected.

2. Remote Control (RC) Switches-A contactore, or more specifically, a relays, that laiches after being
operated wireless from a distance

3. Air Switch-a switch in which the Interruption of a circuit occurs in air.

4 Knife Switch-a form of air switch in which a hinged copper blada is placed between two contact
clips.

5. Float Switch-aswitch controlled by a conductor floating in a liquid

6. Mercury Switch-un especially quiet switch that opens and closes an electric circuit by shifting sealed
glass tube of mercury so as to uncover or cover the contacts.

7. Key Switch switch cha switch operated only by inserting a key or a cord. Also called a card
8. Automatic Transfer Switch (ATG)- This device, an essential part of an emergency or standby service,
is basically a double throw switch, generally 3-pole, so arranged that on failure of normal power,
emergency service is automatically supplied

37 WALL PLATES OR FACEPLATES

These are coverings for switches and wall outlets usually made of matal compound (Bakella) Wall
plates are single gang, two-gang and three-gang or of phenollia

3.8 OVER-CURRENT CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES are devices whose sole purpose is purpose is to
protect Insulation, wining, switches and other apparatus from overheating or burning, due to
overloads, to faults or to short circuits, by automatically cutting off the circuit. The two most common
devices used are the fuse and the circuit breaker. While panel boards and switchboards or switchgears
compose an assembly of fuses or circuit breakers

381 FUSE-is a device consisting of an alloy link of wire with a low malting temperature which is
inserted in the circuit, in such a way that all current which passes through the circuit, must also pass
through this metal, Any current which would be dangerous to the circuit melts this fuse, opens the
circuit at this point and thus protects the rest of the components from the effects of the current. The
cause of the farge current may then be removed and a new fuse inserted in place of the broken one.

TYPES OF FUSES

1 Plug Fuse - type enclosed in a porcelain cap used in circuits not exceeding 125 volts. Current rating is
from 10-30 amperes.

2. Cartridge Fuse-type enclosed in an insulating fiber tube

a) Cartridge type with ferrule contacts- 250 to 600 volts, current rating of from 5-60 amperes

b) Cartridge type with knife blade contacts - 250 to 600 volts; current rating from 70 to 600 amberes

c) Cartridge type with bolted knife blade contacts 6000 amperes -600 volts; current ratings fro 800 to

3. Open Link Fuse This consists of a wire or strip of easily melted metal. It has the disadvantage of
disrupting violently when a short circuit occurs. It is allowed only on sizes smaller than 600 amps and
must be placed in a cabinet.

Fuses may also be classified as "one-time use" and "renewable" The renewable fuse may be
disassembled and a new fuse link inserted to replace the one within.
The general rule is that a wire rated to carry a definite number of amperes should be protected by a
fuse of lower or similar rating

STANDARD TYPE OF FUSES

A. Nonrenewable plug fuse

B. Nonrenewable knife blade fuse

C. Nonrenewable dual element time delay ferrule cartridge fuses

D. Nonrenewable high interrupting capacity current limiting fuse (dual element)

E Nonrenewable miniature fuse

3.8.2 CIRCUIT BREAKERS is an over-current protective device designed to function as a switch, or it

can be manually tripped and thus act as a circuit switch. It breaks a circult with an automatic tripping
device without injury to itself. It is not self-destructive on operation, as the fuse is, and it can be reset
after tripping by merely operating its handle.

TRIPPING

Most circuit breakers are equipped with both thermal and magnetic trips.

1. Thermal Trip - similar in action to a thermostat Heat generated by excessive current causes an
element to move and trip the latching mechanic of the breaker thus opening the breaker contacts and
thereby the circuit.

2 Magnetic Trip comprises a coil with a movable core. On short circuits, magnetic forces actuate the
core which trips the circuit breaker latch

3.83 GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTERS (GFCI or GFIX is an over current protective device that
will provide ground fault protection as well as function as an ordinary circuit breaker

3.8.4 GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF OVERCURRENT DEVICES/

1. Overcurrent devices must be placed on the line side" (or supply side) of the equipment being
protected.

2. Overcurrent devices must be placed in all ungrounded conductors of the protected circuit.

3. All equipment should be protected in accordance with their respective current-carrying capacity

3.8.5 PANELBOARDS- popularly known as "panel" or "electrical panel", it is simply the box wherein the
protective devises are housed from which the circuits and busbars terminate. If the devises are of
fuses, it is called a "Fuse Panel" and if the devices are circuit breakers, it is called a "Breaker Panel". It
is rare that fuses and breakers are housed in the same box, except that a Breaker Panel may
sometimes have a main switch and a fuse for overall protection of the panel.

There are many formats of panel schedule (or specifications layout of the panel) and this is called the
"Schedule of Choice"

TYPES OF PANELBOARDS-

Panelboards are classified according to use as either

1. Lighting Panelboards (LP)

2. Power or Motor Panelboards (PP)

3. Distribution Panelboards (DP)

They may be further classified as "Flush Type" or "Surface Type

PANELBOARD LOCATION

1. A 1 M high or less panelboard should be located 1.35M from the floor to its centerline.

2 A panelboard over 1 M high should be located 75 cm from the floor to the bottom of the box, except
that the highest branch circuit connection should not be more than 1.95 M from the floor.

3. If necessary the 75 cm kan be lowered to 45 cm with the same restrictions as in No. 2. If these
requirements cannot be followed, the panel should be divided into two sections.

4. If two or more panels are adjacent on the same wall, the centerlines of each box should be
equidistant. In addition, panel boxes should be installed with a minimum spacing of 10 cm apart.
3.8.6 SWITCHBOARDS are free standing assemblies of switches, fuses, and/or circuit breakers whose
function normally is to provide switching and feeder protection to a number of circuits connected to a
main source

TYPES OF SWITCHBOARDS

1. Live Front- all the current carrying parts of the switching equipment are mounted on the exposed
face or front of the panel

2. Dead Front all live parts are installed behind the panel, the operator controls the switches, breakers
and other devices by means of Insulated handies extending through holes in the front face

3.8.7 UNIT SUBSTATIONS - (Transfer Load Centers) an assembly of primary switch- fuse-breaker, step-
down transformer, meters, controls, busbars and secondary switchboard. It is used to supply power
from a primary voltage line to any large facility

WIRING METHODS

4.1.1 KNOB AND TUBE WIRING-an obsolete wiring system consisting of single insulated conductors
secured to and supported on porcelain knobs and tubes. When wires run through walls, they are
inserted into a nonmetallic fire-resistant tubing called a loom.

4.1.2 RIGID METAL CONDUIT WIRING is the best and most expensive among the usual type of wiring. Its
advantages are:

1. it is fireproof,

2. moisture proof,

3. it is mechanically strong so that nails cannot be driven through it and it is not readily deformed by
blows,

4. It resists the normal action of cement when embedded in concrete or masonry

In order to provide access to the conduits, for installing the necessary wires and making connections
to them, they are interrupted at frequent intervals by sheet metal boxes with knockout holes. These
boxes are called pull boxes, connection or outlet boxes, or junction boxes. The most common sizes are
the 4 square and 4 octagonal boxes used for fixtures, junction and devices and the 4" x 2-1/2" box
used where splicing is not required In running branch circuits from the panel board to local lamp or
plug outlets, 3 or 4 circuits (6 to 8 wires) may be run in one large conduit to a given pull box, then
branch off into smaller conduits to the final outlet points. It is not good practice to have more than 8
conductors in a given circuit.

Recommended conduit size depends upon the number and diameter of the wires drawn Inside the
conduit. The number and radius of bends in the conduit, as well as the total length affects the degree
of abrasion to insulation when the wire is inserted and pulled out. There should not be more than 2-90
deg. or 345 deg bends in any continuous run.

Long, straight pulls may be made through as much as 150-250 ft (50-83 mts) of continuous 10 ft.
conduits joined by couplings without bends. For exposed conduit work, a large variety of conduit
fittings are available. These fittings are called condulets. And depending on the size, to connect wires
or cables, they are either permanently spliced or joined together by means of a connector.

Rigid Non-Metallic Conduit - A separate classification for rigid conduits are those that are of such
materials as fiber, asbestos- cement, soapstone, rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and high density
polyethylene.

FLEXIBLE METAL CONDUIT WIRING - Its installation is much easier and quicker than that of rigid metal
conduits. Unlike the rigid conduits which corne in short lengths of 10 ft (3 M), flexible metal conduit
wiring comes in length of 25 -250 ft depending on the size of the conduit. The conduit is easily fixed
with pipe straps or clamps when turns are required and requires no elbow fittings (0 M-83 M)

Liquid-light Flexible Metal Condult same construction as the flexible conduit, except that it is covered
with a liquid-light jacket. The trade name "Sealtite" refers to this product.

4.1.4 ARMORED CABLE WIRING (BX WIRING) consists of rubber or thermoplastic covered wire
protected from injury to a certain extent from dampness by one or two layers of flexibile steel armor.
It is different from flexible metal conduit wiring, in that the BX wires and their flexible armor are
installed as a unit such that that the wires cannot be removed from the armor without destroying the
artior.

4.15 SURFACE METAL RACEWAY WIRING the wires are supported on a thin sheet steel casing. The
raceway is installed exposed, being mounted on the walls outlet to outlet or or ceiling. Metal raceways
must be continuous from junction box, designed especially for use with metal raceways.
4.1.6 FLAT CABLE ASSEMBLIES a field installed rigidly mounted square structural channel (15/8" 6
standard) designed to carry 2 to 4 conductors (No. 10 AWG) and will act as light duty (branch circuit)
plug-in buswaYE"

4.1.7 LIGHTING TRACK-a factory-assembled channel with conductors for one to four circuits
permanently installed in the track that will act as light duty (branch circuit) plug-in busways. It is the
factory-assembled version of a flat cable assembly A

41.8 CABLE TRAY... OPEN RACEWAY - is a continuous open support for approved cables. When used as
a general wiring system, the cables must be self-protected, Jacketed types, type TC

4.1.9 FLOOR RACEWAYS The NEC recognizes three types of floor raceways:

1 Underfloor Ducts (UF) Installed beneath or flush with the floor and are available in two basic designs
the single level, where system components such as the feeder ducts, the distribution ducts, the
junction boxes and the floor outlets are on the same level, and the two-level system, where the feeder
and distribution ducts are on different levels thus eliminating the necessity for complex junction
boxes These under floor ducts usually requires a triple duct system for power, telephone and signal
cabling.

2. Cellular Metal Floor Raceway- Found usually in office landscaping, it is an integrated structural
electrical system in a cellular metal floor

3. Precast Cellular Concrete-made of concrete cells 15 fed from header ducts, which are normally
installed in concrete fill above the hollow core structural slab or fed from the ceiling void below. The
cells can be used for air distribution and for piping.

4.1.10 CEILING RACEWAY SYSTEMS under-the-ceiling raceways composed of header ducts and
distribution ducts separate for power and telephone cabling. They permit very rapid changes in
layouts at low cost and are therefore particularly desirable in stores where frequent display
transformations necessitate corresponding electrical facility adjustments.

4.1.11 PRE-WIRED CEILING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS are ceiling raceways that are pre-wired in the
factory and plugged in where required.
House Wiring Installation has been addressed by the NEC under the following specific provisions:

1. Wiring shall be of types RHW, T, THW, TW, THWN and XHHW.

2. On a 15 amp circuit, a single appliance shall not draw a maximum of 12 amp; on 20 amp circuit, a
maximum of 16 amp appliance and on a 30 amp circuit, a single appliance draw shall not exceed 24
amperes.

3. If a branch circuit is combined with lighting or portable appliances, any fixed appliance shall not be
allowed to draw more than 7.5 amp on a 15 amp circuit and 10 amp on a 20 amp circuit.

4. A heavy lamp holder shall be rated not less than 750 watts.

5. A 30, 40 and 50 amp circuit shall not be used for fixed lighting in residences.

6. For appliances used continuously for long periods of time (ie. motors, pumps and air- conditioners),
their actual loads shall be computed not to exceed 80% of the fuse rating.

7. A continuous type load shall be considered at 125% of the actual load in all load calculations.

8. A single receptacle on an individual branch circuit shall have a rating of not less than the circuit.

9. Receptacles feeding portable and or steady appliances shall be limited to loads 80% of their rating,
that is:

12 amp for a 15 amp receptacle

16 amp for a 20 amp receptacle

24 amp for a 30 amp receptacle

10. The number of outlets in a circuit shall be limited to:

6 outlets on a 15 amp circuit

8 outlets on a 20 amp circuit

Electrical instruments list classification

The electrical quantity or the measured properties are used to classify electrical instruments. It’s also
divided into categories based on the type of test function and the current that may be monitored.
1. Ohm Meter : electrical instruments

An ohm metre is an instrument that measures the amount of electricity flowing through a switch. The
circuit of electric current is exactly proportional to the voltage, according to Ohm’s law. This gadget is
mostly concerned with resistance.

Analog ohm metres are one of the two types of ohm metres. Because it uses a needle to measure, it’s
an easier instrument to operate, but you’ll have to be more accurate in determining where the
number is.

2. Ammeter

An ammeter is a device that measures the electric current in amperes flowing through a branch of an
electric circuit. The current must flow through the ammeter in order to be measured, hence the
ammeter must be connected in series with the measured branch and have a very low resistance so
that the measured current does not change. Micro-ammeters are instruments that are used to
measure tiny currents. Because items in series have the same current, the ammeter is connected in
series to the device to be measured.

3.Volt Meter :electrical instruments

The next measuring equipment is a volt metre, which may be used to determine the voltage of an
electric current flowing every second. Within a defined maximum limit, this volt metre may measure
the electric voltage. The gadget will be damaged if the voltage exceeds the limit.

There are two types of volt metres: analogue volt metres and digital volt metres. A needle is used in an
analogue volt metre, but a digital volt metre can display you the value in great detail.

4. Oscilloscope

With the potential exception of the multimeter, the oscilloscope is by far the most flexible and often
utilised of our numerous electrical instruments. It’s simply a voltmeter with a current probe that can
measure amps and may be adjusted to graph power when used in combination with another probe
that reads volts.

5. Wattmeter

Watt-meters are instruments that are used to measure power and are similar in form and construction
to an ammeter. It may be used to calculate the average wattage of an electric current. The current and
pressure coils are found on a wattmeter. A wattmeter may be used to measure amplifier gain and filter
bandwidth.

6.Megger : electrical instruments

Mega ohm metre is the abbreviation for mega ohm metre. Megger is a measuring gadget that tells you
if the conductor of the instances is connected directly. Its main purpose is to determine how well
power tools are insulated. The minimum voltage is 1000 times the operating voltage.

7.Kilowatt-hour metre : electrical instruments

The kwh metre operates by moving the metal plate via magnetic field induction. To calculate
electrical energy use, a kwh metre is utilised. Meanwhile, a kwh metre with induction is one of the
types that may be used to calculate domestic electrical power.

In general, this kWh metre may be found in every home since it is essential to know each household’s
and other building’s power use.

8.Potentiometer

Potentiometers are devices that may be used to determine a voltage that is unknown. A standard cell
or any other known voltage reference source will be used to supply the known voltage. Because the
measurement is done by comparison rather than deflection of the pointer, the potentiometer
measurement has great precision. Potentiometers can be used to compare the E.M.F. of two cells, to
determine the E.M.F. of a cell, to calculate a cell’s internal resistance, and to calibrate the voltmeter
and ammeter.

9. Taco Meter : electrical instruments

The taco metre is the next type of electric measuring equipment. This instrument can measure the
engine rotation of vehicles like automobiles and motorcycles. This gadget contains a screen that
shows the vehicle’s speed. Furthermore, the taco metre is utilised to determine the safe point, which
displays the rotation speed of the vehicle.

10. Multi-meter

Multimeters can be used to measure AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is
referred to as a multi-meter because it can perform the functions of several metres, including a
voltmeter, an ammeter, and an ohm-meter. Multimeters can also be used to check for continuity.