Transmission

Distribution And
Protection of Electrical
Power System

Engr. Irshad Ahmed Khan

 CONTENTS

Experiment
Particular Page No.
No.
Experiment # 01 Circuit Breaker 01

Experiment # 02 Line Insulators 03

Experiment # 03 Line Conductors 05

Experiment # 04 Underground Cables 07

Experiment # 05 Grid Station / Substation 09

Experiment # 06 Buchholz Relay 11

Differential, Overcurrent & Distance
Experiment # 07 13
Protection
Experiment # 08 Impedence Relays 15

Experiment # 09 Overcurrent Relays 17

Experiment # 10 Pole With Minimum Sag of 11KV Lines 19

 Experiment # 01

Circuit Breaker

Object:

To study the Mechanical Designs, Operation and maintenance procedures for various types of Circuit
Breakers.

Components Required:

1. Multimeter
2. Miniature Circuit Breaker
3. Driver Set

Theory:

A device to open or close an electric power circuit either during normal power system operation or during
abnormal conditions. A circuit breaker serves in the course of normal system operation to energize or de-energize
loads. During abnormal conditions, when excessive current develops, a circuit breaker opens to protect equipment
and surrounding from possible damage due to excess current. These currents are usually the result of short circuits
created by lightning, accidents, deterioration of equipment, or sustained overloads.

Types of Circuit Breaker:

1. Oil Ciruit Breaker

2. Air Circuit Breaker
3. SF6 (Sulphur Hexafluoride) Circuit Breaker
4. Vaccum Circuit Breaker

Common Parts of Circuit Breaker:

1. Actuator Lever
2. Actuator Mechanism
3. Contacts
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic Strip
6. Calibration Strip
7. Solenoid
8. Arc Divider

Procedure:

1. Open the cover of miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

2. Carefully recognize the parts of the MCB and prepare a list.
3. Is your list matching the given list? If not so then find out the name of unknown part.

Experiment # 1 Page 1
Result:

Hence we studied various types of ciruit breakers.

Circuit Diagram

Schematic Diagram

Experiment # 1 Page 2
 Experiment # 02

Line Insulators

Object:

To study varios types of insulators used in distribution and transmission systems and their designs.

Material Required:

1. Various Line Insulator.

Theory:

An insulator, also called a dielectric. Is a material that resists the flow of electric current. An
insulating material has atoms with tightly bonded valence electrons. These materials are used in parts of
electrical equipment, also called insulators or insulation. Intended to support or separate electrical
conductors without passing current through themselves. Some materials such as glass, paper or Teflon are
very good electrical insulators. These materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to
moderate voltages ( hundreds, or even thousands of volts).

Line Insulators:

Line conductors are electrically insulated from each other as well as from the pole or tower by non
conductor which are called tower.

Pin-Type Insulator:

The pin-type insulator is designed to be mounted on a pin which in turn is intalled on the crossarm
of the pole

Post-Type Insulators:

Post type insulator are generally used for higher voltage applications with the hight and number of
petticoats being greator for the higher voltages.

Spool Insulator:

The spool-type insulator, which is easily identified by its shape, is usually used for secondary mains.
The spoo-type insulator may be mounted on a secondary rack or in a service clamp.

Procedure:

1. Take various types of insulators available in the Laboratory and recognize them with the help of
above information.

Result:

Hence we studied various Line Insulators.

Experiment # 2 Page 3
 Pin Type Insulator Post Type Insulator

Suspension Insulator Spool Type Insulator

Experiment # 2 Page 4
 Experiment # 03

Line Conductors

Object:

To study various types of conductors used in distribution and transmission systems.

Material Required:

1. Various Line Conductors.

Theory:

Line Conductors may vary in size according to the rated voltage. The number of conductors string
on a pole depends on the type of circuits that are used.
The most common conductor in use for transmission today is aluminum conductor steel reinforced
(ACSR). Also seeing much use is all-aluminum-alloy conductor (AAAC). Aluminum is used because it has
about half the weight of a comparable resistance copper cable (though larger diameter due to lower
specific conductivity), as well as being cheaper. Copper was more popular in the past and is still in use,
especially at lower voltages and for grounding. Bare copper conductors are light green.

Copper Conductors:

Copper is used in three forms:

1. Hard drawn
2. Medium hard drawn
3. Soft drawn
Hard drawn copper wire has the greatest strength of the three and is, therefore, mainly used for
transmission circuits for long spans (200ft or more).

Aluminum and ACSR Conductors:

Aluminum is used because it has about half the weight of a comparable resistance copper cable
(though larger diameter due to lower specific conductivity), as well as being cheaper.

Procedure:

1. Take piece of conductors one by one and match the properties with the given information/ data
and verify.

Result:

Hence we studied various types of conductors used in distribution & transmission systems of
electrical power.

Experiment # 3 Page 5
 Copper Conductor

Aluminium and ACSR Conductor

Aluminum Conductor

Experiment # 3 Page 6
 Experiment # 04

Underground Cables

Object:

To study underground cables.

Material Required:

1. Specimen of Underground Cable

Theory:

A cable is defined as an assembly of conductors and insulators used for the transfer of power in
densely populated urban areas. Cables are mostly laid under the ground in order not to disturb the land
beauty and to avoid using the land for power transmission purposes.
Undergrounding is more expensive, since the cost of burying cables at transmission voltages is
several times greater than overhead power lines, and the life-cycle cost of an underground power cable is
two to four times the cost of an overhead power line.
An underground cable is composed of the following parts:
1. Core
2. Copper or Aluminium
3. Insulation

Core:

All Cables either have a central core or a number of cores made of strands of copper or aluminium
conductors having highest conductivity. Conductors are stranded in order to reduce the skin effect.

Copper:

Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. Copper
is ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.

Aluminium:

Aluminum is used because it has about half the weight of a comparable resistance copper cable
(though larger diameter due to lower specific conductivity), as well as being cheaper.

Insulation:

Insulators have a resistance that is so great that, for all practical purposes, they are nonconductors.

Procedure:

1. Practical demonstration

Result:

Cables have been studied and their operation is understood.

Experiment # 4 Page 7
 Underground Cable

Experiment # 4 Page 8
 Experiment # 05

Grid Station / Substation

Object:

Report on visit of a large Grid Station for general study.

Theory:

A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations

transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions.

Explanation:
Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations
at different voltage levels. A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high
transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different
transmission voltages.

Transmission Substation:

A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all
transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage switches that
allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance.
The largest transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple
voltage levels, many circuit breakers, and a large amount of protection and control equipment.

Distribution Substation:

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system
of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network,
unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for
local distribution.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-transmission
lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a
number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV,
depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.

Procedure:

We visit the substations with the permission of our worthy principal who arranged a visit program
for us.

Result:

We visit a transmission substation and a distribution substation.

Experiment # 5 Page 9
 Transmission and Distribution Substation

Experiment # 5 Page 10
 Experiment # 06

Buchholz Relay

Object:

To study the Buchholz Relay.

Equipments Required:

1. Directional Relay
2. Distance Relay
3. Screw Driver Set

Theory:

Buchholz relay is a gas actuated realay installed in oil-immersed transformers for protection against all kind
of faults. Buchholz relay is used for the protection of transformers from the faults occurring inside the
transformer. Short circuit faults such as inter turn faults, incipient winding faults, and core faults may occur
due to the impulse breakdown of the insulating oil or simply the transformer oil. Buchholz relay will sense
such faults and closes the alarm circuit.
Working Principle:

Whenever a fault occurs inside the transformer, the oil in the transformer tank gets overheated and gases
are generated. The generation of the gases depends mainly on the intensity of fault produced. The heat
generated during the fault will be high enough to decompose the transformer oil and the gases produced
can be used to detect the winding faults. This is the basic principle behind the working of the Buchholz
relay.
Advantages:

1. It is the simplest form of transformer protection.

2. It detects the slow developing faults at a stage much earlier than other forms of protection.

Disadvantages:

1. It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped with conservators.
2. The device can detect only faults below oil leveling the transformer. Therefore separate protection
is needed for connecting cables.

Procedure:

1. Open the relay with the help of appropriate tools.

2. Observe all the parts carefully and match with the given diagram.

Result:

Hence we studied the construction and operation of Buchholz Relay.

Experiment # 6 Page 11
 Buchholz Relay

Experiment # 6 Page 12
 Experiment # 07

Differential, Overcurrent & Distance Protection

Object:

To get familiar with Differential And Over Current & Distance Protection System.
Theory:

In electrical engineering, a protective relay is a relay device designed to trip a circuit breaker when
a fault is detected. The first protective relays were electromagnetic devices, relying on coils operating on
moving parts to provide detection of abnormal operating conditions such as over-current, over-voltage,
reverse power flow, over-frequency, and under-frequency.
Differential Protection:

It is used for transformer and generator protection. It simultaneously compares the phaser
difference & magnitude of the current entering & leaving the protected zone. Differential protection is a
unit protection, relay works on the principle of Kirchoff’s current Law. Measuring element is Current
Transformer. The differential current measured between the incoming current and Outgoing current must
be negligible current during stable and through fault condition. In case of in zone fault or unstable
condition (due to CT saturate) relay will sense the differential current and issue the trip signal.
Overcurrent Protection:

A relay that operates or picks up when it’s current exceeds a predetermined value (setting value) is
called Over Current Relay.
Over current protection protects electrical power systems against excessive currents which are caused by
short circuits, ground faults, etc. Over current relays can be used to protect practically any power system
elements, i.e. transmission lines, transformers, generators, or motors.
Over current includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earth faults,
Winding faults, Differential and distance protection.
Distance Protection:

Distance protection is widely used in the transmission network, its also called impedance protection
because relay operates with respect to fault impedance of the transmission line (Z=V/I).
It calculates the apparent impedance of a line with the help of voltage & current input connected to the
relay. If measured impedance falls below set impedance trip command is issued to clear the fault.
Result:

We familiarized with Differential protection , Over Current Protection and Distance Protection.

Experiment # 7 Page 13
 Schematic of Differential Protection System

Experiment # 7 Page 14
 Experiment # 08

Impedence Relays
Object:

To get familiar with Impedence Relays.

Theory:
Impedance relays are used whenever overcurrent relays do not provide adequate protection. They
function even if the short circuit current is relatively low. The speed of operation is independent of current
magnitude. The relay consists of a balanced beam.
Working Principle of Impedence Relay:

The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple. There is one voltage
element from potential transformer and an current element fed from current transformer of the system.
The deflecting torque is produced by secondary current of CT and restoring torque is produced by voltage
of potential transformer.
Operation of Impedence Relay:

The operation of such relay depends upon the predetermined value of voltage to current ratio. This
ratio is nothing but impedance. The relay will only operate when this voltage to current ratio becomes less
than its predetermined value. Hence, it can be said that the relay will only operate when the impedance of
the line becomes less than predetermined impedance (voltage / current). As the impedance of a
transmission line is directly proportional to its length, it can easily be concluded that a distance relay can
only operate if fault is occurred within a predetermined distance or length of line.
There are two types of Impedence Relay:
1. Definite Impedence Relay
2. Time Impedence Relay
Definite Impedence Relay:

This is simply a variety of balance beam relay. Here one beam is placed horizontally and supported
by hinge on the middle. One end of the beam is pulled downward by the magnetic force of voltage coil, fed
from potential transformer attached to the line. Other end of the beam is pulled downward by the
magnetic force of current coil fed from current transformer connected in series with line.
Time Impedence Relay:

The Time Impedence Relay mainly consists of a current driven element like double winding type
induction over current relay. The spindle carrying the disc of this element is connected by means of a spiral
spring coupling to a second spindle which carries the bridging piece of the relay contacts. The bridge is
normally held in the open position by an armature held against the pole face of an electromagnet excited
by the voltage of the circuit to be protected.
Result:

Hence we studied various types of Impedence Relays

Experiment # 8 Page 15
 Impedence Relay Characteristics

Experiment # 8 Page 16
 Experiment # 09

Overcurrent Relays

Object:
To get familiar with overcurrent relays.
Theory:
Overcurrent is any current load in excess of the safety rating of equipment or the ampacity of a
conductor. Overcurrent may result from an overload, a short circuit, or a ground fault. Overcurrent does
not always cause a fire.
An overcurrent relay is a type of protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a
pickup value.
Working Principle of Overcurrent Relay:

In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When normal current flows
through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of
the relay, as in this condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force. But when the current
through the coil increased, the magnetic effect increases, and after certain level of current, the deflecting
force generated by the magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the restraining force, as a result, the moving
element starts moving to change the contact position in the relay.
Depending upon time of operation, there are various types of Over Current relays, such as,
1. Instantaneous over current relay.
2. Definite time over current relay.
3. Inverse time over current relay.

Intantaneous Over Current Relay:

Here generally a magnetic core is wound by current coil. A piece of iron is so fitted by hinge support
and restraining spring in the relay, that when there is not sufficient current in the coil, the NO contacts
remain open. When current in the coil crosses a present value, the attractive force becomes sufficient to
pull the iron piece towards the magnetic core and consequently the no contacts are closed.
Definite Overcurrent Relay:

This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up value of the current. A
definite time over current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at definite amount of time after it
picks up. Thus, it has a time setting adjustment and pick up adjustment.
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:
Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device. This means the speed of
rotation of rotating art of the device is faster if input current is increased. In other words, time of operation
inversely varies with input current. This natural characteristic of electromechanical induction disc relay in
very suitable for over current protection.
Result:

Hence we got familiarize with Overcurrent Relays.

Experiment # 9 Page 17
 Use of Overcurrent Relay

Characteristics

Experiment # 9 Page 18
 Experiment # 10

Pole With Minimum Sag of 11KV Lines

Object:
Design of pole with minimum sag of 11KV lines as per WAPDA/K-Electric specifications in streets, on
road crossings, road sides & high ways.
Theory:
Prestressed concrete poles are often used in coastal areas subject to atmospheric corrosion ( one
manufacturer claims that “ concrete poles are foremost in apprearance, durability and maintenance-free
service”)
Power Riser:
It is a specially allocated space for electrical wiring to 'rise' up a building in an orderly, organised
and safe way mostly in a vertical fashion. Sometimes they share the space together with telecom and IT
cables and occasionally even together with city water, water supplying sprinkler & fire protection systems,
city gas, exhaust ducts etc
Sag:
A voltage sag (U.S. English) or voltage dip (British English) is a short duration reduction in rms
voltage which can be caused by a short circuit, overload or starting of electric motors. A voltage sag
happens when the rms voltage decreases between 10 and 90 percent of nominal voltage for one-half cycle
to one minute.
Tension:
Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension (formally denoted ∆V or
∆U, but more often simply as V or U, for instance in the context of Ohm's or Kirchhoff's laws) is the
difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric charge.
Result:
Hence we Studied the design of pole with minimum sag of 11KV lines as per WAPDA/K-Electric
specifications in streets, on road crossings, road sides and highways.

Experiment # 10 Page 19
 CATV Power Supply

Parabola for Line Conductor Supported

Experiment # 10 Page 20