ELECT 112 Week 6 8

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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: _6_
TOPIC/S
Series Circuit Resistance
EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
1. To recognize and construct a series circuit,to distinguish it from a parallel circuit and / or
interpret a series schematic circuit diagram.
2. Comparing current and electrical potential values at different locations within a series
circuit and to clarify the concepts on which such comparisons are based.
3. Calculating the equivalent resistance of a series circuit from individual values of
resistance.
4. To evaluate a set of circuits mathematically, in order to connect the current value in each
one battery voltage resistor and the resistance values of the individual resistors.
5. To evaluate a set of circuits mathematically and to use the equation of Ohm’s Law to
identify the voltage drops over each resistor and compare each of those values to the battery
voltage.
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
There are two common ways to link more than two components of the circuit: Series and
Parallel. In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to - end, creating a continuous
current flow direction.
Figure 1- Sample series circuit
Source: allaboutcircuit.com
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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Here we have three resistors (labeled R1, R2 , and R3) attached from one battery terminal to
another in a long row. (It should be remembered that the subscription marking the small num
bers to the lower right of the letter "R" is unrelated to the values of the resistor in ohms and s
erves only to distinguish one resistor from another.)
The distinguishing feature of a series circuit is that for current to pass, there is only one
direction. The current flows in a clockwise direction throughout this chain, from point 1 to
point 2 to point 3 to point 4 and back to point 1.
The Basic Connections of Series Circuit
The basic concept of a "chain or series” connection is that the components are joined in a
line to form a common direction along which the current will flow:
Figure 2
Three principles you should to understand regarding series circuit:
1. Current: The sum of current is the same for each part in a series circuit.
2. Resistance: The total resistance of any circuit of a series is equal to the amount of the
individual resistances.
3. Voltage: The supply voltage of the series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
voltage drops.
Series Circuit Rules
Current
Components in a series circuit share the same current:
 Itotal = I1 = I2 = . . . In
Resistance
Total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances, making
it greater than any of the individual resistances:
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 Rtotal = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn
Voltage
Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops:
 Etotal = E1 + E2 + . . . En
Example- Start with a series of circuits consisting of three resistors and one battery:
Figure 3
The first theory to be known with regards to series circuits is as follows:
A. The sum of current in a series circuit is the same for any part of the circuit.
This is because there is only one single flow direction in a series circuit. Since electrical
charge flows through conductors such as marbles in a tube, the rate of flow (marble speed) at
any point in the circuit (line) at any given point in time must be equal.
Using Ohm 's Rule on Series Circuits
As the 9-volt battery is mounted, we can see that the current in this circuit will travel in the
clockwise direction, from point 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and back to 1. However, there is one type of
voltage and three resistances. How are we going to apply Ohm 's Rule here?
An significant exception to Ohm's Law is that all quantities (voltage , current, resistance, and
power) must refer to one another in terms of the same two points in the circuit. This principle
can be seen in action in the following example of a single resistor circuit.
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Using Ohm's Law in a Simple, Single Resistant Circuit
With a single-battery, single-resistor circuit, we could easily calculate any amount, because
they were all applied to the same two points in the circuit:
Figure 4
Since points 1 and 2 are linked together with a wire of negligible resistance, as are points 3
and 4, it can be concluded that point 1 is electrically common to point 2 and that point 3 is
electrically common to point 4.
Since we know that there are 9 volts of electromotive force between points 1 and 4 (directly
across the battery) and since point 2 is common to point 1 and point 3 common to point 4,
there must also be 9 volts between points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor).
Thus, we can apply Ohm's Law (I= E / R) to the current through the resistor, since we know
the resistor's voltage (E) across the resistor and its resistor (R). All words (E, I, R) refer to
the same two points in the circuit, to the same resistor, so that we can use the Ohm Law
formula without reservation.
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Using Ohm's Law in Multiple Resistor Circuits
In circuits with more than one resistor, we have to be careful about how we apply Ohm's
Law. In the example tri- resistor circuit below, we know we have 9 volts between points 1
and 4, which is the sum of electromotive force driving the current through the combination
of R1 , R2, and R3 series.
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Figure 5
The figure of 9 volts is a sum quantity for the entire circuit, while for individual resistors the
figures of 3k, 10k, and 5k are individual values. If we were to plug a total voltage figure into
an Ohm's Law equation with an individual resistance number, the result would not accurately
correspond to any quantity in the real circuit.
For R1, the law of Ohm will relate the voltage quantity across R1 to the current through R1,
given the resistance of R1, 3kΩ:
However, since we don't know the voltage over R1 (only the total voltage supplied by the
battery over the combination of the three-resistor series) and we don't know the current
through R1, we can't do any calculations with either formula. The same goes for R2 and R3:
if and only if all terms are representative of their respective quantities between the same two
points in the circuit we can apply the Ohm's Law equations.
What, then, can we do? We know the source voltage (9 volts) applied across the combination
of R1 , R2, and R3 series, and we know each resistor 's resistance, but since those amounts
aren't in the same sense, we can't use Ohm's Law to calculate the circuit current. If we only
knew what the total resistance for the circuit was: then we could calculate the total current
using our total voltage (I= E / R) figure.
Combining multiple resistors into a single resistor equivalent
This takes us to the second series-circuit principle:
B. Any series circuit 's total resistance is equal to the number of the individual
resistances.
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This should make intuitive sense: the more resistors the current must flow through in series,
the harder it will be for the current to flow.
In the example problem, we had series resistors of 3kΩ, 10kΩ, and 5kΩ, giving us a total
resistance of 18kΩ:
Essentially, we have measured the combined relative resistance of R1, R2 , and R3. With this
in mind, we could redraw the circuit with a single equivalent resistor representing the
combination of series R1, R2 , and R3:
Figure 6
Calculating Circuit Current Using Ohm’s Law
Now we have all the details required to determine the current of the circuit since we have the
voltage between 1 and 4 (9 volts) and the resistance between 1 and 4 (18kΩ):
Component voltages Calculation using Ohm's law
Knowing that current is equal across all components of a series circuit (and we've just
determined the current through the battery), we can go back to our original schematic circuit
and note the current through each component:
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Figure 7
Now that we know the amount of current through each resistor, we can use the Ohm's Law to
determine the voltage drop across each one (applying Ohm's Law in its proper context):
Note the voltage drops through each resistor, and how the voltage total drops (1.5 + 5 + 2.5)
is equal to the voltage (supply) of the battery: 9 volts.
This is the third series-circuit principle:
C. In a series circuit the supply voltage is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops.
Analyzing Simple Series Circuits by "Table Form" and the Rule of Ohm
The approach we used only to evaluate this simple series circuit, however, can be simplified
for better understanding. By using a table to list all voltages , currents, and resistance in the
circuit, it becomes very easy to see which of those quantities in any Ohm's Law equation can
be properly related:
Table 1
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The rule for such a table is to apply Ohm's Law to the values in each vertical column only.
ER1 for example with IR1 and R1 only; ER2 with IR2 and R2 only; etc. You start your analysis
by filling in those table elements that are given to you from the outset:
Table 1-a
As you can see from the arrangement of the data, we can’t apply the 9 volts of ET (total
voltage) to any of the resistances (R1, R2, or R3) in any Ohm’s Law formula because
they’re in different columns. The 9 volts of battery voltage is not applied directly across R1,
R2, or R3. However, we can use our “rules” of series circuits to fill in blank spots on a
horizontal row. In this case, we can use the series rule of resistances to determine a total
resistance from the sum of individual resistances:
Table 1-b
Now, with a maximal resistance value placed in the rightmost ("Absolute") column, Ohm's
I= E / R Law can be applied to total voltage and total resistance to achieve a total current of
500 μA:
Table 1-c
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Knowing then that the current is shared equally by all components of a series circuit (another
"law" of series circuits), we can fill in the currents from the current figure just measured for
each resistor:
Table 1-d
Finally, we can use Ohm's Law to calculate the voltage drop, one column at a time, through
each resistor:
Table1-e
Review
 Components in a series circuit share the same current: I Total = I1 = I2 = . . . In

 The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances:
R Total = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn
 Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops E
Total = E1 + E2 + . . . En
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PROGRESS CHECK
I. Solve the following problems.
1. What is the current flow through R1, R2, and R3?
A. 1A, 1A, 1A
B. 1A, 2A, 3A
C. 3A, 3A, 3A
D. 3A, 2A, 1A
2. What is the dc source voltage?
A. 78 V
B. 39 V
C. 13 V
D. 0 V
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3. With a total resistance of 3300 ohms and a 45 V source, if R3 is 1200 ohms, what will be
its voltage drop?
A. 16.36 V
B. 32.72 V
C. 10.90 V
D. 15.00 V
4. An 8-ohm resistor is in series with a lamp. The circuit current is 1 A. With 20 V

applied, what voltage is being allowed for the lamp?
A. 4 V
B. 8 V
C. 12 V
D. 20 V
5 In this circuit three resistors from a single source obtain the same amount of current (4
amps). Calculate the amount of voltage each resistor has "dropped" as well as the amount of
power dissipated by each resistor:
REFERENCES
Herbert W. Jackson (1959), Introduction to Electric Circuits, 10th Edition
Laboratory Manual- Basic Electricity (Direct Current)

Adapted from Introduction to Electricity & Electronics produced by Buck Engineering Co.
Inc.
https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-an-ohmmeter-circuit-diagram-types-and-applications/
Circuitglobe. Com
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: _7_
TOPIC/S
Parallel Circuit Resistance
1. To recognize and construct a parallel circuit,to distinguish it from a series circuit and / or
interpret a parallel schematic circuit diagram.
2. Comparing current and electrical potential values at different locations within a parallel
circuit and to clarify the concepts on which such comparisons are based.
3. Calculating the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit from individual values of

resistance.
4. To evaluate a set of circuits mathematically, in order to connect the current value in each
one battery voltage resistor and the resistance values of the individual resistors.
5. To evaluate a set of circuits mathematically and to use the equation of Ohm’s Law to
identify the voltage, resistance and current.
There are two common ways to link more than two components of the circuit: Series and
Parallel. In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other, forming
exactly two sets of electrically common points.
Figure 1- Sample parallel circuit
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Again, we have three resistors, but this time for the current to flow they form more than one
continuous course. There is one direction from 1 to 2 to 7 to 8, and then back to 1. There's
another one from 1 to 2 to 3 to 6 to 7 to 8, and again to 1. And then from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5
to 6 to 7 to 8 and back to 1 again. Any single path (through R1, R2 , and R3) is called
branch.
The defining feature of a parallel circuit is that all the components are connected to the same
set of common electric points. Looking at the schematic diagram, we see that things 1 , 2, 3,
and 4 are all typical electrically. That is the way points 8, 7, 6 and 5 are. Note that both these
two sets of points are connected to all resistors, as well as the battery.
The Basic Connection of a Parallel Circuit
On the other hand, the fundamental concept of a "parallel" connection is that all the
components are linked over the leads of each other. There's never more than two sets of
electrically similar points in a strictly parallel circuit, no matter how many components are
related. For current flow there are many paths but only one voltage across all components:
Figure 2
A "branch" in a parallel circuit is a path created by one of the load components (such as a
resistor) for electric current.
Like the series circuit, we still have these three principles to understand regarding
parallel circuit:
1. Voltage: In a parallel circuit the voltage is equal to all components.

2. Current: The total current of the circuit is equal to the sum of the current of the individual
branches.
3. Resistance: Individual resistance decreases to equal a smaller total resistance, instead of
adding to the sum.
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Let's take a look at some parallel circuit examples which demonstrate these principles.
We 're going to start with a parallel circuit with three resistors and a single battery:
Figure 3
Parallel Circuit Voltage

The first concept to be known about parallel circuits is that all components in the circuit have
the voltage equal. This is because in a parallel circuit, there are only two sets of electrically
common points and the voltage measured between sets of common points must always be
the same at any given time.
Thus, in the above circuit , the voltage through R1 is equal to the voltage through R2 which
is equal to the voltage through R3 which is equal to the voltage in the battery.
This equality of voltages for our starting values can be expressed in another table:
Table 1
Ohm’s Law Applications for Simple Parallel Circuits

Much as with series circuits, the same condition applies to Ohm's Law: values for voltage ,
current and resistance must be in the same sense in order for the equations to work correctly.
However, we can immediately apply Ohm's Law to each resistor in the above example
circuit to find its current, since we know the voltage across each resistor (9 volts) and the
resistance of each resistor:
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Table 1-a
At this point, we still don't know what the total current or total resistance is for this parallel
circuit, so we can't apply Ohm's Law to the column at the far right ("Complete"). If we think
carefully about what is happening, however, it should become obvious that the total current
must be equal to the number of all individual resistor currents ("branch"):
Figure 4
As the total current leaves the positive (+) battery terminal at point 1 and flows through the
circuit, some of the flow divides at point 2 to go through R1, some more divides at point 3 to
go through R2, and the remainder passes through R3. Like a river that splits into many
smaller streams, all streams must have combined flow rates equal to the flow rate of the
entire river.
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The same thing is noticed when the currents flow back to the negative terminal of the
battery-) (to point 8 through R1, R2 , and R3: the current flow from point 7 to point 8 must be
equal to the sum of the currents (branch) through R1, R2 , and R3.
This is the second concept of parallel circuits: the number of the individual branch
currents is equal to the total circuit current.
Using this principle, the sum of IR1, IR2, and IR3 can be filled in at the IT spot on our table:
Table 1-b
How to calculate total parallel resistance

Finally, we can measure the total circuit resistance by applying Ohm's Law to the column at
the right ("Absolute"):
Table 1-c
The Parallel Circuit Resistance Equation

Something very important please note here. The total resistance of the circuit is only 625Ω:
less than any of the resistors. In the series circuit, in which the total resistance was the sum
of the individual resistances, the total was bound to be greater than any of the individual
resistors.
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But the opposite is true here in the parallel circuit: we say that the individual resistances are
diminishing rather than adding to make the total.
This principle completes our triad of "rules" for parallel circuits, just as three rules for
voltage, current , and resistance have been found on series circuits.
Mathematically, in a parallel circuit, the relation between total resistance and individual
resistance looks like this:
Three Parallel Circuit Law

In short, a parallel circuit is defined as one in which all components are connected between
the same set of common electric points. Another way to mean that is that all modules are
related through the terminals of each other. Three parallel-circuit rules follow from this
definition:
1. All components share the same voltage.
2. Resistances diminish to equal a smaller, total resistance.
3. Branch currents add to equal a larger, total current.
Just as in the case of series circuits, the concept of a parallel circuit is root to all these laws.
If you completely grasp the definition then the rules are just footnotes to the definition.
Review
 Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage: ETOTAL = E1 = E2 = . . . En

 Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual resistances:
RTOTAL = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2+ . . . 1/Rn)
 Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents:
ITOTAL = I1 + I2 + . . . In.
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PROGRESS CHECK
1. In this circuit, three resistors receive the same amount of voltage (24 volts) from a single
source. Calculate the amount of current “drawn” by each resistor, as well as the amount of
power dissipated by each resistor:
2. Determine the amount of voltage impressed across each resistor in this circuit:
Hint: locate all the points in this circuit that are electrically common to one another!
3. According to Ohm’s Law, how much current goes through each of the two resistors in
this circuit?
Draw the paths of all currents in this circuit.

4. Calculate the total amount of current that the battery must supply to this parallel circuit:
Now, using Ohm’s Law, calculate total resistance (Rtotal) from total (source) voltage
Vtotal and total (source) current Itotal.
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5. Complete the table of values for this circuit:
REFERENCES

Inc.
Circuitglobe. Com
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: _8_
TOPIC/S
 Voltage Divider Circuit
1. Be able to solve the output voltage of a simple voltage divider using Ohm’s Law and
derived equations.
2. To demonstrate a simple voltage divider circuit.
3. Be able to solve ratios for voltage drops.
4. To identify voltage- dividing components.
5. To understand the operation and importance of potentiometer.
Let 's analyze a simple series circuit and evaluate the drops in voltage through individual
resistors:
Figure 1
Table 1
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We may calculate a total circuit resistance from the given values of individual resistances,
knowing that the resistances add in series:
Determine the Total Circuit Resistance

Table 1-a
From here, we can use Ohm's Law (I= E / R) to calculate the total current which we know
will be the same as each resistor current, with currents in all parts of a series circuit being
equal:
Table 1-b
Use Ohm’s Law to Calculate Current

Now, understanding that the circuit current is 2 mA, Ohm 's Law (E= IR) can be used to
measure the voltage over each resistor:
Table 1-c
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It should be obvious that the voltage drop across each resistor is proportional to its resistance,
as the current across all resistors is the same. Note how the voltage in R2 is twice the voltage
through R1, just as R2 's resistance is twice that of R1
If we were to change the total voltage, we will note this proportionality of voltage drops
remains constant:
Table 1-d
Solving Ratios for Voltage Drop
In spite of the fact that the source voltage has increased, the voltage over R2 is still exactly
twice that of R1's dropping. The proportionality of drops in voltage (ratio of one to another)
is purely a function of values of resistance.
With a little further study it becomes clear that a fixed proportion of the supply voltage is
also the voltage drop around each resistor. For example, the voltage through R1, when the
battery supply was 45 volts, was 10 volts. The voltage drop across R1 also increased by a
factor of 4 (from 10 to 40 volts) when the battery voltage was boosted to 180 volts (4 times
as much). The voltage drop across R1 also increased by a factor of 4 (from 10 to 40 volts)
when the battery voltage was boosted to 180 volts (4 times as much).
Likewise, with the increased supply voltage, none of the other voltage drop ratios did change
either:
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Voltage Divider Formula
For this reason, for its ability to proportion— or divide — the total voltage into fractional
portions of constant ratio, a series circuit is often called a voltage divider. With a bit of
algebra, we can derive a formula for determining the voltage drop of the series of resistors
given nothing more than total voltage, individual resistance and total resistance:
In a voltage divider circuit the ratio of individual resistance to total resistance is the same as
the ratio of individual voltage drop to total supply voltage. This is known as the formula for
the voltage divider, and it is a short-cut approach for calculating voltage drop in a series
circuit without going through the latest Ohm's Law calculations.
Example of Using Voltage Divider Formula

Using this formula, we can re-analyze the example circuit’s voltage drops in fewer steps:
Figure 2
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Voltage - Dividing Components
Voltage dividers find broad use in electrometer circuits, where unique combinations of series
resistors are used as part of a voltage measuring system to "divide" a voltage into precise
proportions.
Figure 3
Potentiometer as components which divide voltage
The potentiometer, which is a resistor with a movable element placed by a manual knob or
lever, is one device frequently used as a voltage-dividing component. The movable part,
usually called a wiper, makes contact at any point selected by the manual control with a
resistive strip of material (commonly called the slidewire if it is made of resistive metal
wire):
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Figure 4
The wiper touch is the arrow symbol to the left drawn in the center of the part of the vertical
resistor. As it is moved up, it reaches the resistive strip closer to terminal 1 and further away
from terminal 2, decreasing terminal 1 resistance and increasing terminal 2 resistance. The
opposite effect happens, when it is passed down. For every wiper position the resistance as
measured between terminals 1 and 2 is constant.
Figure 5
Rotaries vs. linear potentiometers
Internal examples of two types of potentiometers, rotary and linear, are shown here.
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Linear Potentiometers
Figure 6
Some linear potentiometers are actuated by a lever or slide button in a straight-line motion.
Others, such as the one shown in the previous example, are operated by a turn-screw for fine
adjustment capability. Often the above units are called trimpots because they function well
for applications needing a variable resistance to be "trimmed" to some specific value. It
should be noted that not all linear potentiometers have the same terminal assignments as
illustrated in this image. The wiper terminal is, with some, in the centre, between the two end
terminals.
Rotary Potentiometer
The picture below shows a rotary potentiometer's body structure.
Figure 7
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The picture below shows a true, rotary potentiometer with exposed wiper and slidewire for
easy viewing. The shaft that drives the wiper has been turned almost fully clockwise, so that
the wiper almost hits the slidewire 's left terminal end:
Figure 8
Here is the same potentiometer with the wiper shaft going almost absolutely
counterclockwise, so that the wiper is close to the other extreme end of the journey:
Figure 9
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Effects of a Potentiometer in a Circuit
If a constant voltage is applied between the outer terminals (over the length of the slidewire),
a fraction of the applied voltage, observable between the wiper contact and one of the other
two terminals, is taped at the wiper position. The fractional value is entirely dependent upon
the wiper's physical position:
Figure 10
Importance of operation of a potentiometer
Like the fixed voltage divider, the voltage division ratio of the potentiometer is purely a
resistance function, and not the magnitude of the voltage applied. In other words, if the
potentiometer knob or lever is shifted to the 50 percent (exact center) position, the voltage
lowered between the wiper and either outside terminal will be exactly 1/2 of the voltage
applied, regardless of what that voltage is or what the end-to - end potentialometer resistance
is. In other words, a potentiometer acts as a divider of variable voltage where the ratio of the
voltage division is determined by location of the wiper.
This potentiometer method is a very useful way to achieve a variable voltage from a
fixed-voltage source such as a battery. If a circuit you are constructing needs a certain
amount of voltage that is less than the value of the voltage of an available battery, you can
link the potentiometer 's outer terminals across that battery and "dial up" whatever voltage
you need between the wiper potentiometer and one of the outer terminals for use on your
circuit:
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Figure 11
When used in this way, the name potentiometer makes perfect sense: by creating a variable
voltage-divider ratio, they meter (control) the potential(voltage) applied across them. In
circuit design this use of the three-terminal potentiometer as a variable voltage divider is
very popular.
Small Potentiometer Samples
Several small potentiometers of the kind frequently used in consumer electronic equipment
and by hobbyists and students in circuit construction are shown here:
Figure 12
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The smaller units on the very left and very right are designed to either be plugged into a
solderless breadboard or soldered to a printed circuit board. The middle units are designed to
be mounted to each of the three terminals on a flat panel with wires soldered to. Here are
three more, more specialized potentiometers than the set just shown:
Figure 13
The large unit called "Helipot" is a laboratory potentiometer designed to connect quickly and
easily to a circuit. The unit in the photograph's lower-left corner is the same type of
potentiometer, just without a counting case or 10-turn dial. Both of these potentiometers are
precision units, using helical-track resistance strips with multiple turns and wiper
mechanisms to make small adjustments. The lower-right unit is a potentiometer for panel
mounting, designed for rough service in industrial applications.
How to Find a Divide Circuit Output Voltage
One of the most common and useful circuits used by engineers is the two resistor tension
divider. This circuit's primary aim is to scale down the input voltage to a lower value based
on the ratio between the two resistors. This calculator assists in determining the output
voltage of the divider circuit given the voltage of the input (or source) and the resistor values.
Note that the output voltage can be different in actual circuits as resistor tolerance and load
resistance (where the output voltage is connected) become considerations.
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Equation
VOUT = VIN x R2
R1 + R2
Where:
VoutVout = Output voltage. This is the scaled down voltage.
VinVin = Input voltage.
R1R2and R2R2 = Resistor values. The ratio R2 determines the scale factor.
R1 + R2
Applications
As voltage dividers are very general, they can be used in several applications. Below are
only a few of the places this circuit is situated.
Potentiometers
Figure 14
The most popular circuit of the voltage divider might be the one involving a potentiometer,
which is a variable resistor. The schematical diagram of a potentiometer is shown below:
32
Usually a "pot" has three external pins: two are the resistor ends, and one is attached to the
wiper arm. The wiper trims the resistor into two and shifts it, changing the ratio between the
resistor's top half and bottom half. Attach the two external pins to a voltage (input) and a
reference (ground) with the middle pin (wiper pin) as the output pin and you have a divider
for yourself.
Level Shifters
Another situation where dividers of voltage are useful is where a voltage has to be levelled
down. The most popular situation is when two different voltage levels are interfacing the
signals between a sensor and a microcontroller. Most microcontrollers run at 5V while some
sensors can tolerate only a maximum 3.3V voltage. Of course, you want to level the voltage
down from the microcontroller to avoid sensor damage. Underneath is an example circuit:
Figure 15
33
The above circuit demonstrates a circuit of the voltage divider involving a resistor of 2kΩ
and 1kΩ. If the microcontroller voltage is 5V, then the voltage leveled down to the sensor is
measured as:
VOUT = 5 x 2kΩ = 3.33V

2kΩ + 1kΩ
Now this level of voltage is safe for the sensor to handle. Note that this circuit only works to
level down and not up voltages.
Below are some other combinations of resistors used to level down voltages commonly
encountered:
Resistor Combination Use
4.7 kΩ and 6.8 kΩ 12V to 5V
4.7 kΩ and 3.9 kΩ 9V to 5V
3.6 kΩ and 9.1 kΩ 12V to 3.3V
3.3 kΩ and 5.7 kΩ 9V to 3.3V
Reading Resistive Sensor
Many sensors are resistive devices and read voltage by most microcontrollers, not resistance.
So usually a resistive sensor is connected with a resistor in a voltage divider circuit to
interface with a microcontroller. Below is an example of the setup:
Figure 16
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A thermistor is a sensor that changes its resistance proportionally to the temperature. Let 's
say the thermistor has 350Ω of room temperature resistance. The paired resistance is selected
to be 350Ω cas well.
The output voltage when the thermistor is at room temperature shall be:
VOUT = 5 x 350Ω = 2.5V

350Ω + 350Ω
When the temperature increases, the thermistor resistance changes to 350.03Ω, the output
changes to:
VOUT = 5 x 350.03Ω = 2.636V

350Ω + 350.03Ω
Such a slight voltage shift can be observed by a microcontroller. If the transfer function of
the thermistor is known then the corresponding temperature can be measured now.
REVIEW:
 Series circuits proportion, or divide, the total supply voltage among individual
voltage drops, the proportions being strictly dependent upon resistances: ERn = ETotal
(Rn / RTotal)
 A potentiometer is a variable-resistance component with three connection points,
frequently used as an adjustable voltage divider.
PROGRESS CHECK
Solve the following problems.
1. Calculate the output voltages of these two voltage divider circuits (VA and VB):
35
2. Draw an equivalent schematic diagram for this circuit, then calculate the voltage dropped
by each of these resistors, given a battery voltage of 9 volts. The resistor color codes are as
follows (assume 0% error on all resistor values):
R1 = Brn, Grn, Red, Gld
R2 = Yel, Vio, Org, Gld
R3 = Red, Grn, Red, Gld
R4 = Wht, Blk, Red, Gld
R5 = Brn, Blk, Org, Gld
Compare the voltage dropped across R1, R2, R3, and R4, with and without R5 in the circuit.
What general conclusions may be drawn from these voltage figures?
REFERENCES

Inc.
Circuitglobe. Com

ELECT 112 Week 6 8

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ELECT 112 Week 6 8

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1

Week No.: _6_

Series Circuit Resistance

Figure 1- Sample series circuit

The Basic Connections of Series Circuit

Three principles you should to understand regarding series circuit:

Series Circuit Rules

The first theory to be known with regards to series circuits is as follows:

Using Ohm 's Rule on Series Circuits

Using Ohm's Law in a Simple, Single Resistant Circuit

Combining multiple resistors into a single resistor equivalent

This takes us to the second series-circuit principle:

Calculating Circuit Current Using Ohm’s Law

Component voltages Calculation using Ohm's law

This is the third series-circuit principle:

 Components in a series circuit share the same current: I Total = I1 = I2 = . . . In

I. Solve the following problems.

1. What is the current flow through R1, R2, and R3?

2. What is the dc source voltage?

4. An 8-ohm resistor is in series with a lamp. The circuit current is 1 A. With 20 V

Herbert W. Jackson (1959), Introduction to Electric Circuits, 10th Edition

Laboratory Manual- Basic Electricity (Direct Current)

Week No.: _7_

Parallel Circuit Resistance

3. Calculating the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit from individual values of

Figure 1- Sample parallel circuit

The Basic Connection of a Parallel Circuit

1. Voltage: In a parallel circuit the voltage is equal to all components.

Parallel Circuit Voltage

Ohm’s Law Applications for Simple Parallel Circuits

How to calculate total parallel resistance

The Parallel Circuit Resistance Equation

Three Parallel Circuit Law

 Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage: ETOTAL = E1 = E2 = . . . En

Draw the paths of all currents in this circuit.

5. Complete the table of values for this circuit:

Herbert W. Jackson (1959), Introduction to Electric Circuits, 10th Edition

Laboratory Manual- Basic Electricity (Direct Current)

Week No.: _8_

 Voltage Divider Circuit

Determine the Total Circuit Resistance

Use Ohm’s Law to Calculate Current

Solving Ratios for Voltage Drop

Voltage Divider Formula

Example of Using Voltage Divider Formula

Voltage - Dividing Components

Potentiometer as components which divide voltage

Rotaries vs. linear potentiometers

Effects of a Potentiometer in a Circuit

Importance of operation of a potentiometer

Small Potentiometer Samples

How to Find a Divide Circuit Output Voltage

VOUT = 5 x 2kΩ = 3.33V

Resistor Combination Use

4.7 kΩ and 6.8 kΩ 12V to 5V

4.7 kΩ and 3.9 kΩ 9V to 5V

3.6 kΩ and 9.1 kΩ 12V to 3.3V

3.3 kΩ and 5.7 kΩ 9V to 3.3V

Reading Resistive Sensor

VOUT = 5 x 350Ω = 2.5V

VOUT = 5 x 350.03Ω = 2.636V

Solve the following problems.

R2 = Yel, Vio, Org, Gld