The International Journal of Human Resource

Management

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Effects of work–family and family–work conflicts

on flexible work arrangements demand: a gender
role perspective

Hyondong Kim & Yaping Gong

To cite this article: Hyondong Kim & Yaping Gong (2017) Effects of work–family and
family–work conflicts on flexible work arrangements demand: a gender role perspective,
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28:20, 2936-2956, DOI:
10.1080/09585192.2016.1164217

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1164217

Published online: 18 Apr 2016.

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International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2017
VOL. 28, NO. 20, 2936–2956
https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1164217

Effects of work–family and family–work conflicts on

flexible work arrangements demand: a gender role
perspective
Hyondong Kima and Yaping Gongb
a
Dongguk Business School, Dongguk University-Seoul, Seoul, South Korea; bDepartment of
Management, The Hong Kong University Science and Technology, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of
China

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
In recent years, a growing number of firms have adopted Flexible work arrangements
flexible work arrangements (FWAs) to help managers (FWAs); work–family
conflicts; family-supportive
balance their work–family demands. Based on a sample
supervision; gender
of 1336 married managers in Korea, we found that work– difference
family conflict increased the FWAs demand more for female
managers than for male managers. When facing work–
family conflict, the absence of family-supportive supervision
increased the demand for FWAs, particularly among female
managers. No such effect was found for family–work conflict.
In addition, having a female supervisor led to an increased
demand for FWAs from company managers. These results
suggest that firms should pay close attention to gender
difference and supervisory roles in predicting the demand for
FWAs to alleviate work–family conflicts.

Introduction
A manager’s work and family structure may have distinct features that accentuate
the incompatible aspects of his or her work and family responsibilities. Managers
must address these incompatible expectations and roles by juggling their work
and family roles because their work and family domains are inexorably linked.
Flexible work arrangements (FWAs) attempt to reduce these conflicts and help
balance employees’ work and family lives (Baltes, Briggs, Huff, Wright, & Neuman,
1999; Lapierre & Allen, 2012). From the employer’s perspective, the use of FWAs
increases employee job satisfaction and reduces employee job stress by promoting
a work-life balance (Leslie, Manchester, Park, & Mehng, 2012). Employers have
shown continued interest in FWAs because they are designed to promote positive

CONTACT  Hyondong Kim  kim1415@dongguk.edu

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2937

job attitudes and task behaviors in the workplace (Allen, Johnson, Kiburz, &
Shockely, 2012).
Work–family conflict is defined as the extent to which work and family roles
and responsibilities are incompatible (Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian, 1996). The
patterns of work–family conflict are also bidirectional in nature: work–family or
family–work. Work–family conflict is defined as the extent to which negative work
experiences interfere with family life. Thus, company managers who work overtime
and on weekends are likely to face strong pressure to fulfill family responsibilities.
Conversely, family–work conflict refers to a situation where family life intrudes
in the work domain. For example, company managers’ family responsibilities may
make it difficult for them to participate in work events. FWAs can increase the sense
of control at the work and family interface, which mitigates the competing demands
from work and family roles (Lapierre & Allen, 2012). Company managers need
FWAs to alleviate the conflicting relations between the work and family domains.
The previous literature tends to focus on the extent to which the availability and
use of FWAs helps employees mitigate work–family conflicts (Allen et al., 2012;
Baltes et al., 1999). There is a need for more research on whether managers who
experience work–family conflicts have an increased demand for FWAs and if so,
who (i.e. females or males) would have a greater demand and under what condi-
tions (Allen et al., 2012; Byron, 2005; Shockley & Singla, 2011).
The current study adopted gender role theory to investigate the significance of
gender and family-supportive supervision in the effects of work–family conflicts
on FWA demand. A gendered division of labor shapes the different expectations
concerning work and family involvement between male and female managers
(Powell & Greenhaus, 2010b). Gender role determines the salience of work and
family roles, which may cause female managers to demand FWAs more than their
male counterparts because of the greater salience of the family role to female than
male managers. This study also examined whether supervisory roles influence
the demand for FWAs arising from work–family conflicts. Gender role is closely
associated with supervisors’ perceptions regarding the work–family relations of
company managers. Because family involvement is considered more important
to female managers than work involvement is, supervisors who are supportive of
the work–family relations are aware of the importance of family roles to female
managers. When negative work experiences interfere with the quality of family
life, supervisors who support work–family balance facilitate transitions across
the work–family interface for female managers, which should reduce demands
for FWAs (Lapierre & Allen, 2006; Hoobler, Wayne, & Lemmon, 2009; Powell &
Greenhaus, 2010).
This study addresses several important issues in the existing literature. First,
little evidence exists that the demands for FWAs are driven by work–family con-
flicts. It is therefore important to ascertain whether work–family conflicts increase
the demand for FWAs. Second, this study clarifies the asymmetric role of gender
for the impact of work–family conflict compared with family–work conflict and
2938    H. Kim and Y. Gong

suggests that gender moderates the impact of work–family conflict but not fam-
ily–work conflict on the demand for FWAs. Further, supervisors who are willing
to support the work–family balance of company managers perceive the saliency
of gender roles, which makes different demands for FWAs between female and
male managers. Finally, this study contributes to the knowledge about FWAs
in East Asia and Korea in particular. The current study was conducted in the
Korean workplace, where traditional ideas of gender roles remain prevalent. In
recent years, the proportion of working women who hold professional and man-
agerial positions has increased in Korea because of the country’s rapid economic
development and increasing level of education (Kim et al., 2010). Despite Korea’s
modernization, Korean society has largely adhered to gender-stereotypic beliefs
concerning occupational and family roles. Meanwhile, the research on FWAs has
been predominantly conducted in the Western countries, where family-friendly
policies and programs have been institutionalized. Companies in eastern Asia
have only recently begun to adopt FWAs to manage the incompatible demands
that arise from the work–family interface (Masuda et al., 2012). By focusing on
Korean companies, we generate knowledge on FWAs in East Asian societies.

Theory and hypotheses development

Gender role theory
According to gender role theory, gender differences originate from individual
beliefs regarding the social roles of men and women (Greenhaus, Peng, & Allen,
2012; Powell & Greenhaus, 2010a). Gender-stereotyping beliefs ascribe different
characteristics to men and women, and the general concept of gender roles exerts
normative influences over the behavioral activities of men and women. Individuals
internalize gender-related beliefs and exhibit behavioral actions that are consist-
ent with gender-stereotypic norms. Further, gender-stereotypic attributes lead
to a division of labor between the work and family domains (Eagly, Wood, &
Diekman, 2000). Women are perceived as homemakers, whereas men are con-
sidered breadwinners. Gender-stereotyping beliefs accentuate the divergent roles
and responsibilities of men and women because gender role norms are manifest
in the domains of work and family (Eagly et al., 2000).
Gender role theory explains why male and female managers have different
demands for FWAs when they are challenged by work–family conflict. FWAs
make the work–family interface more flexible and permeable, which facilitates
transitions between the domains. Because socially defined gender roles activate
their family identity, family life is considered a more important component of the
personal identities of female managers compared with male managers (Greenhaus
et al., 2012). Thus, to encourage a positive self-concept, female managers require
(and utilize) FWAs to protect the family domain against negative work experi-
ences. Moreover, supervisors’ perceptions regarding why their managers need
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2939

FWAs to fulfill family demands are susceptible to gender. Supervisors expect

company managers to commit to organizational success, whereas family roles
are likely to be prioritized for female managers. Family-supportive supervision
helps female managers meet the demands of their families, while male managers
are expected to make commitment to company works. Although FWAs can be
utilized to increase the productivity of both female and male managers, gender
roles exert significant influences on the need for FWAs (Leslie et al., 2012).
Gender-role theory argues that men and women invoke different personal
identities in their work–family interfaces (Shockley & Singla, 2011). Female and
male managers exhibit distinct behavioral responses regarding the directions
of work–family conflicts; in this process, supervisors’ support for work–family
balance plays a critical role in determining the demand for FWAs, particularly
for female managers. The present study attempts to elucidate the significance
of gender roles in predicting the demand for FWAs by examining work–family
conflicts and family-supportive supervision.

Work–family conflict, gender and the demand for FWAs

When female managers experience a negative work–family interface, they find

it difficult to strike a healthy work–family balance (Powell & Greenhaus, 2010b).
Because gender roles activate gender identity in the self-construct, working women
are more likely to define themselves as more closely associated with the family in
contrast to male managers. When family roles and responsibilities are more salient
to working women, they are more likely to invoke an identity that is derived from
the family domain. Women are more likely to protect their family domain against
interference from the work domain to preserve their identities and values that are
centered on family roles and responsibilities. The work domain variables, such
as job involvement, job stress and schedule (in)flexibility are significantly related
to work–family conflict because these factors are considered sources of the work
domain’s interference with the family domain (Byron, 2005). When company work
interferes with family roles, female managers are more likely to attribute the cause
to work-related involvement and stressors (Shockley & Singla, 2011). FWAs help
female managers to address work-related stressors so that they can simultaneously
meet work demands and manage the family role. In short, work–family conflict
leads to increased demand for FWAs from female managers because FWAs support
them to protect their family roles against negative work experiences.
Work–family conflict may not be as significantly related to male managers’
demand for FWAs as they are to female managers’ demand. Job tasks and respon-
sibilities are important to male managers by encouraging their identification with
the work domain. Male managers typically find that work domain interferences
in the family domain are acceptable because job tasks and work responsibilities
are prioritized over family roles as compared to female managers. In eastern Asia,
the obligations of men and women are distinctively segmented. Male managers
2940    H. Kim and Y. Gong

have obligations to serve the economic needs of their families, whereas women
undertake most of the responsibility for family obligations. In eastern Asian work-
places, male managers are expected to offer their full commitment to job tasks and
responsibilities. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness
(GLOBE) research project surveyed 62 societies on gender egalitarianism (House,
Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Gender egalitarianism views men and
women as equals and advocates egalitarian relationships between them, which
is closely related to managers’ perceptions concerning the division of work and
family roles between females and males (House et al., 2004). South Korea has the
lowest score in gender egalitarianism, which reflects the idea that male managers
are expected to commit to career success. Masuda et al. (2012) found that the use
of FWAs may not help managers in eastern Asian regions address work–family
challenges compared with similar programs in Anglo and Latin America. Using
FWAs may be perceived as a lack of work motivation, which leads managers –
particularly male managers – to reduce their demand for FWAs (Leslie et al.,
2012). Thus, in contrast to female managers, work–family conflict fails to increase
the demand for FWAs among male managers because male managers have fewer
needs or motivation than female managers to use the FWAs to protect family
obligations from work–family conflict.
We expect that manager gender does not moderate the effect of family–work
conflict on FWAs demand. The work and family domains are presumed to have
specific properties that significantly influence work–family interactions. In this
regard, company managers tend to perceive family stressors and involvement as
the source of negative family experiences. In the face of negative family experi-
ences, female managers are more likely to pursue conflict resolution in the family
domain. The same holds for male managers. FWAs can help company manag-
ers adjust their work schedules to fulfill family demands and responsibilities.
However, because such arrangements are in the work domain and intended to
address negative experiences in the work domain, they can play only a limited
role in addressing negative experiences in the family domain. In other words,
FWAs has a limited role in protecting work from being negatively influenced
by family demands and responsibilities. Therefore, in contrast to work–family
conflict, family–work conflict should not lead to FWAs demand for both male
and female managers.
Hypothesis 1: Manager gender moderates the relation between work-family conflict
and FWA demand, such that the relation is more strongly positive for female managers
than for male managers. No such moderating effect of manager gender is expected for
the relation between family-work conflict and FWA demand.

Moderating effects of family-supportive supervision

The negative interference of the work domain in the family domain increases
the pressure on managers to accommodate the incompatible demands from each
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2941

domain. When supervisors are concerned that company work may be interfering
with family responsibilities, managers feel comfortable discussing family-related
issues with their supervisors (Lapierre & Allen, 2006). Family-supportive super-
vision also provides informal support for managers to make personal life invest-
ments (Leslie et al., 2012). Family-supportive supervision increases the flexibility in
workplaces when female managers acquire the psychological resources to prevent
negative work experiences from interfering with their family domain.
We expect that family-supportive supervision will have a significant impact
on the relation between work–family conflicts and the demand for FWAs for
female managers. When they perceive emotional support from their supervisors,
female managers become less concerned regarding the career disadvantages that
may arise from expressing concerns involving family-related obligations (Lapierre
& Allen, 2006). Conversely, the absence of emotional support from immediate
supervisors poses an obstacle to female managers with respect to accommodating
their personal lives in their career development. Therefore, female managers feel
the strain of the incursions of negative work experiences in the family domain,
particularly when their supervisors are unwilling to appreciate their need to take
care of their families. Because female managers are expected to hold more respon-
sibility for housework and childrearing than male managers, female managers
should not neglect these family duties. When negative job experiences interfere
with the family domain, the female managers who do not have an understanding
from their supervisors concerning the salience of family roles may need FWAs to
effectively perform both family obligations and work roles.
In particular, in the eastern Asian society, the supervisors who acknowl-
edge and accept the family responsibilities of their subordinates are more piv-
otal in granting work flexibility to fulfill family needs in contrast to the Western
society (Lu et al., 2010). Lu et al. (2010) compared the significance of supervisory
support in work–family conflict between employees in the UK and Taiwan. Lu
et al. (2010) reported that supervisory support has more influence on family
involvement outside the work domain in Mainland China than in the UK. A
lack of family-supportive supervision can prevent female managers from invest-
ing resources in family duties. Because female managers prioritize family over
company responsibilities, they have a greater demand for FWAs to fulfill family
obligations. In Asian society, in particular, supervisors have significant influence
over the work–family balance of female managers. Therefore, at a low level of
family-supportive supervision, female managers have a greater demand for FWAs
when they are confronted with work–family conflicts.
Hypothesis 2: Family-supportive supervision negatively moderates the relations among
work-family conflict, gender, and the demand for FWAs, such that female managers
have a lower demand for FWAs with high levels of family-supportive supervision
under high work-family conflict than do males. No such moderating effect of fam-
ily-supportive supervision is expected for the relations among family-work conflict,
gender, and the demand for FWAs.
2942    H. Kim and Y. Gong

Method
Participants and procedure
The present study used the Korean Women Manager Panel (KWMP) as a study
sample, which was conducted by Korea Women Development Institution
(KWDI) and the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family. The KWDI is a gov-
ernment-sponsored research institution that provides information, statistics and
recommendations for work–family balance policies to promote gender equality
at workplaces. The KWMP is a national survey that collects information to amass
a research database and also provides career assistance for female managers
(Kim et al., 2010). In Korea, there is a lack of female managers in workplaces,
although the Korean Government has implemented affirmative action programs
and offered financial incentives for family-friendly programs to support gender
equality (Kim et al., 2010). However, Korean female managers still confront
a glass ceiling when pursuing career advancements (Woo, 2013). The KWMP
survey explores Korean female managers’ progress; it gathers information and
contributes to knowledge about how these managers advance their careers despite
gender barriers.
The population of the KWMP survey is limited to managers working at
companies with more than 100 workers, and stratified sampling was used as a
sampling method. The KWMP survey defines sub-groups in industry member-
ships (manufacturing, retailing, finance and other services) and company size
(100–299 workers, 300–999 workers, 1000–1999 workers and more than 2000
workers). It also allocates sample sizes in accordance with the proportions of
industry memberships and company size. To increase its sample size, the KWMP
survey is administered both online and using paper-and-pencil. Using stratified
sampling, the KWMP survey was able to collect data from a representative sam-
ple of female managers. To ensure that researchers can better compare female
and male managers, KWMP team asked female managers to identify their male
counterparts in the same organization. This should make other things constant
such as position level, job nature and work environment for female and male
managers. Through the matched pairs of female and male managers, the present
study is able to compare gender differences in the work–family conflicts and its
related demand for FWAs.
The sample of the present study included only married managers, as marriage
accentuates the negative work–family processes (Byron, 2005). Of the original
sample, which included including 2000 female employees and 800 male managers
as part of a matched pair, 978 females and 642 males are married. Of the sam-
ple of married managers, we exclude those with missing variables, and checked
whether at least one female manager and one male manager are working in the
same company. The present study’s sample is 1336 married managers consisted
of 811 female and 525 male managers in 245 companies.
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2943

Measures

The KWDI takes multiple steps to confirm the reliability and validity of the KWMP
questionnaire items. The KWMP research team conducted literature reviews
on work–family research areas, generating questionnaire items drawn from the
previous literature. The KWMP research team includes bilingual business pro-
fessors and researchers who translated English into Korean. A focus group
interview (FGI) and pilot-testing were conducted to make the items clearer and
more understandable. Based on the feedback from the FGI and pilot-testing, the
KWMP research team corrected inconsistencies and ambiguities in the survey items

Work–family and family–work conflicts

Family–work conflict includes three items, whereas work–family conflict includes
four items rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly
agree). KWMP referred to Netemeyer, Boles, and McMuriaan (1996) and Carlson,
Kacmar, and Williams (2000) to generate and develop work–family conflict items.
The present study defined work–family conflict items including (a) time-based
and (b) strain-based items. The amount of time devoted to the work (family) role
makes it difficult to participate in the family (work) role. Strains experienced
by company managers in the work (family) role interfere with family (work)
responsibilities.

Family-supportive supervision
Family-supportive supervision was measured with three items using a five-point
Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) adopted from the previous
literature (Lapierre & Allen, 2006).

Demand for FWAs

The previous literature has focused on specific FWA practices (e.g. compressed
workweek, telecommuting), although various types of FWAs are currently used to
promote flexibility in the workplace. KWMP used a FGI for one-and-a-half hours
to gather information regarding the availability of and demand for FWAs (Kim
et al., 2010). Based on the FGI, KWMP extends FWA practices by including the
following seven programs: (a) homeworking; (b) telecommuting; (c) flextime; (d)
alternative work scheduling; (e) compressed workweek; (f) core working hours;
and (g) part-time work. The respondents were asked regarding the demand for
FWAs using a five-point Likert scale (1 = unnecessary, 2 = slightly unnecessary,
3 = average, 4 = slightly necessary, 5 = necessary).
The FWAs demand construct can be modeled with a formative measurement.
FWAs demand is a multidimensional construct that comprises seven different
practices. The FWAs that organizations provided to company managers show
variability in their styles, and seven different practices collectively explain the
meaning of the FWAs demand construct (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Jarvis, 2005).
2944    H. Kim and Y. Gong

Seven FWA practices form an overall representation of the FWAs demand con-
struct. Each FWA practice captures a unique aspect of the FWAs demand construct
because these FWA practices are not interchangeable (Law, Wong, & Mobley,
1998; MacKenzie et al., 2005). The removal of each FWA practice variable may
alter the theoretical meaning of the FWAs demand construct (Law et al., 1998;
MacKenzie et al., 2005). There would be structural arrows that point from each
FWA practice to the FWAs demand construct (Brown, 2006; MacKenzie et al.,
2005). Therefore, a formative measurement model should be specified for the
FWAs demand construct.
KWMP measured whether each FWA practice was available to company man-
agers. When FWAs were available, company managers were assumed to have no
demands for them. FWAs that were available to company managers therefore were
coded as ‘0’, representing no demand for FWAs. Including FWA availability in
the FWA demand construct can help better assess the actual demand for FWAs.
Recognizing no demand for FWAs (coded as ‘0’) can be more appropriate to
modeling the formative measurement. At the end, this study uses the average of
the seven programs (including 0) to assess the total demand for the seven FWAs.1

Control variables
Individual demographic and organizational characteristic variables may exert
significant influence over demand for FWAs (Allen et al., 2012). The control var-
iables included a variety of individual and organizational variables: age, educa-
tion, working spouse, the number of children, job level, working hours per week,
after-workhour, the availability of FWAs, supervisor gender, industry classifica-
tion and company size. Education and job level variables were categorized into
three groups, respectively (education: high school graduate, college and university
graduate and master and PhD degree; job level: manager, director and executive).
Supervisor gender (0: male supervisor; 1: female supervisor) and spouse-working
(1: employed spouse; 0: unemployed spouse) were dummy-coded. Working hours
per week were log-transformed due to concerns about normality assumptions.
After-workhour variable measures the extent to which family-related activity is
important to company managers. Survey respondents are asked how they spend
their time at home after working hours: (a) company works; (b) leisure; (c) school;
and (d) family. We dummy-coded the items into family- and non-family-related
activities including company works, leisure and school (1: family; 0: non-family).
The study participants were asked as to which FWA programs were available to
them at the workplace. The FWA programs that were available to study partici-
pants were coded as ‘0’; and FWAs that were not available to study participants
were coded as ‘1’. We averaged the answers to the seven survey items regarding
the availability of FWAs into one variable, which represents the availability of
FWA programs (Leslie et al., 2012; Masuda et al., 2012).2Industry groups included
three categories, i.e. manufacturing, finance and service industries. The company
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2945

size was measured with a four-point Likert scale (1: 100–299 workers, 2: 300–999
workers, 3: 1000–1999 workers, 4: more than 2000 workers).

Results
Descriptive statistics and correlation
Table 1 presents the correlations for the study variables. In terms of the job level,
898 (67.2%) were managers and 438 (32.8%) were directors. About the number of
children, 28.7% of managers had no children, 51.5% had one child and 19.6% of
them had two children. The demand for FWAs averaged 2.84, from a minimum
of .50 to a maximum of 5.0. The availability of FWAs averaged .06, which means
that 6% of company managers have access to at least one FWA program. The
availability of FWAs ranged from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of .71; flextime
(12.4%) and core working hours (12.6%) were more available than other practices
(homeworking: 6.4%; telecommuting: 4.2%; alternative working schedules: 4.0%;
and compressed workweek: 1.2%). According to the report from the Ministry
of Labor, 13.7% of Korean companies offer part-time work, 7.3% of them have
flextime; 6.1% of them have alternative working schedules; and 2.8% offer tele-
commuting (Yang & Moon, 2010). Korean companies participating in the KWMP
had slightly more FWAs than other companies.
In addition, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to test the statis-
tical differences between male and female managers with respect to independent,
dependent and control variables. Female managers have higher levels of work–
family conflict (F(1, 1334) = 30.49), family–work conflict (F(1, 1334) = 211.22),
family-supportive supervision (F(1, 1334) = 50.11) and demand for FWA (F(1,
1334) = 34.66). Regarding education and job levels, there were significant gen-
der differences. Therefore, we must consider gender differences to examine the
research model.

Validity and reliability

To conduct factor analyses, we divided the sample into two halves. Half of the sam-
ple was used for the exploratory factor analysis and the other half for confirmatory
factor analysis. The exploratory factor analysis with a Varimax rotation reported
a four-factor solution (χ2 = 255.52, df = 74; Table 2). The KMO test score is .812.
Bartlett’s test of sphericity rejects the null hypothesis that the correlation matrix is
an identity matrix (χ2 = 4692.43; df = 136; p < .001). A confirmatory factor analysis
also provided support for the validity of the measurements (χ2 = 408.66, df = 113,
GFI = .93, CFI = .93, TLI = .92, RMSEA = .06 and SRMR = .047).
Because FWAs demand is a formative construct, we followed the guidelines
of MacKenzie, Podsakoff, and Jarvis (2005) and Brown (2006) to conduct a
second confirmatory factor analysis (Figure 1). Identification problem is an issue
Table 1. Correlation table.
2946 

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1. Age* 37.45 4.60
2. High school* .11 .31 .10
3. College & university* .76 .43 −.10 −.63
4. Master & PhD .13 .33 .04 −.14 −.68
5. Number of children .91 .70 −.01 −.07 .07 −.02
6. Spouse-working* .76 .42 −.23 .09 −.01 −.06 −.09
7. Manager* .33 .47 −.48 .07 .02 −.09 −.11 .12
8. Director* .66 .47 .45 −.06 −.03 .10 .12 −.12 −.98
  H. Kim and Y. Gong

9. Executive .01 .09 .14 −.01 .02 −.01 −.03 −.02 −.06 −.13
10. Manufacturing .31 .47 .04 .02 −.01 −.00 .07 −.04 .05 −.05 .00
11. Finance .30 .45 .04 .02 −.03 .02 .01 .09 −.00 .00 −.03 −.44
12. Service .39 .49 −.07 −.04 .04 −.01 −.08 −.04 −.04 .04 .02 −.54 −.52
13. Company size 2.09 1.14 .06 .04 −.07 .05 .00 .10 −.02 .02 .00 −.14 .48 −.32
14. Hours worked per week 48.50 6.81 −.00 −.05 −.04 .09 −.02 .02 −.01 .01 .02 −.02 .14 −.11 .12
15. Availability of FWAs .06 .11 .00 −.02 .01 .00 −.02 .02 −.06 .06 .02 −.07 −.04 .11 .09 −.07
16. After-workhour .24 .42 −.11 .09 −.05 −.02 −.05 .41 .02 −.02 −.00 −.07 .08 −.01 .13 .12 .00
17. Supervisor gender .12 .33 −.12 −.02 .02 −.01 −.02 .10 .00 .00 −.03 −.08 −.01 .09 −.01 −.03 .04 .08
18. Work–family conflict* 2.96 .77 .00 −.00 −.01 .01 .04 .07 −.02 .02 −.00 −.02 .04 −.02 .10 .37 −.03 .01 .01
19. Family–work conflict* 2.55 .88 −.12 .03 .02 −.05 .21 .24 .08 −.07 −.06 −.08 .04 .04 .03 .02 −.02 .05 .05 .35
20. Family supportive 3.78 .86 .05 −.00 .02 −.02 .04 −.12 −.04 .04 .01 −.04 .11 −.07 .09 −.09 .07 .01 .01 −.25 −.15
supervision *
21. Gender .60 .49 −.25 .14 −.07 −.04 −.08 .61 .14 −.14 −.00 −.12 .12 −.00 .15 .04 .01 .16 .16 .15 .37 −.19
22. FWAs demands* 2.84 .96 −.15 −.07 −.01 .08 .02 .11 .07 −.05 −.08 −.00 .00 −.00 −.03 .03 −.35 .08 .08 .19 .20 −.17 .16
Data:
n = 1336.
All correlations above .06 are significant at p < .05.
All correlations above .08 are significant at p < .01.
*indicates the significant gender difference.
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2947

Table 2. Results of factor analyses.a

Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Confirmatory
Work–family conflict (α = .81)
(a) The amount of time my job takes .78 .32 .21 .19 .82
up makes it difficult to fulfill family
responsibilities
(b) Things I want to do at home do not .75 .31 .17 .09 .74
get done because of the demands
my job puts on me
(c) Due to all the pressure at work, .58 .24 .17 .10 .60
sometimes when I come home I am
too stressed to do things I enjoy
(d) My job produces strain that makes .72 .32 .21 .16 .73
it difficult to ulfill family duties
Family–work conflict (α = .75)
(a) Because I am often stressed from .39 .83 .11 .11 .76
family responsibilities, I have hard
time concentrating on my work
(b) The demand of my family or spouse .37 .70 .18 .16 .68
interfere with work-related activities.
(c) The time I spend with my family .22 .67 .09 .05 .65
often causes me not to spend time
in activities at work that could be
helpful to my career
Family supportive supervision (α = .87)
(a) My supervisor understands my −.24 .18 .79 −.09 .77
family demands
(b)My supervisor listens when I talk −.26 .12 .96 −.13 .96
about family
(c)My supervisor acknowledges that I −.19 .11 .77 −.15 .78
have obligation as a family member
FWAs demands (α = .85)
(a) Flextime .13 −.06 −.10 .65 .63
(b) Homeworking .11 −.08 −.14 .66 .66
(c) Compressed workweek .13 −.07 −.10 .62 .60
(d) Telecommuting .12 −.13 −.08 .77 .78
(e) Alternative working schedules .16 −.10 −.14 .78 .82
(f) Core-working hour .09 −.08 −.08 .54 .55
(g) Part-time work .16 .-11 −.08 .74 .78

Eigenvalue 4.42 2.93 2.04 1.45

χ2/df 255.52/74 408.66/113
a
Boldface factor loadings indicate the items retained for each scale.

in models with formative measurements. Fixing a formative indicator to one or

fixing the factor variance to unity is insufficient to identify a model with form-
ative measurements (Brown, 2006). Identification problem can be addressed if
the formative construct emits paths to at least two reflective latent constructs
(Brown, 2006). Moreover, there must be no relation specified among the latent
Y-reflective variables. In Figure 1, the formative construct of FWAs demand emits
paths to the reflective constructs, work–family conflict, family–work conflicts and
family-supportive supervision without specifying the relations among the three
latent variables. The test results provided support for the validity of the meas-
urements (χ2 = 245.06, df = 101; GFI = .98; CFI = .98; TLI = .98; RMSEA = .033;
SRMR = .034).
2948    H. Kim and Y. Gong

FSUP1

WFC1
FSUP2
Family-
Supportive
WFC2 Supervision
Work- Family
Conflict FSUP3
(FSUP)
(WFC)

WFC3

WFC4
FWA1

FWA2
FWC1
Flexible
Work FWA3
Arrangem
Family- ents
Work (FWAs)
FWC2 Conflict FWA4
(FWC)

FWA5
FWC3

FWA7 FWA6

Figure 1. Confirmatory factor analysis assuming formative measure.

To test common method variance, another model was tested, where there was
one latent method factor, in addition to four factors. The fit of this model was poor
(χ2 = 834.46; df = 117) and was significantly worse than the four-factor model
(Δχ2/df = 589.40/18, p < .01). Cronbach’s alpha for work–family conflict (α = .81),
family–work conflict (α = .75), family-supportive supervision (α = .87) and FWA
demand (α = .85) exceeded the threshold level (α = .70). Thus, all the variables
exhibited sufficient validity and reliability.

Test of hypotheses

Table 3 summarizes the hierarchical regression results. Model 1 included the con-
trol variables and Model 2 analyzed the main effects of the independent variables.
Model 3 examined the two-way interaction effects between work–family conflicts
and gender and also, family-supportive supervision, respectively, which tested
Hypothesis 1. Model 4 examined three-way interaction effects among work–family
conflicts, gender and family-supportive supervision, which tested Hypothesis 2.
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2949

Table 3. Hierarchical regression model.

Flexible work arrangements demanda
Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Control variables
Age −.10*** −.10*** −.10*** −.10*
High school −.15*** −.15*** −.15*** −.15**
College & university −.11*** −.11*** −.12*** −.12**
Number of children .02 −.02 −.01 −.01
Spouse-working .06 .04 .02 .02
Manager .26*** .22*** .25*** .25***
Director .27*** .23*** .26*** .26***
Manufacturing −.02 −.01 −.00 −.00
Finance −.03 −.02 −.01 −.01
Company size −.00 −.01 −.01 −.01
Hours worked per week −.01 −.07* −.07* −.07*
After-workhour −.10*** −.06* −.05 −.05
Supervisor gender .07* .06* .07 .06
Availability of FWAs −.36*** −.35*** −.35*** −.35***
Independent Variables
Work–family conflict (WFC) .15*** .07* .07*
Family–work conflict (FWC) .11*** .08* .08*
Moderators
Gender (G) .04 .05
Family supportive supervision (FS) −.08* −.09*
Two-way interactions
WFC × G .08* .09*
FWC × G .02 .02
WFC ×FS −.02 .06
FWC × FS −.05 −.05
G × FS .01 .02
Three-way interactions
WFC × FS × G −.10*
FWC × FS × G .04
Adjusted R2 .17 .20 .21 .22
∆R2 .04 .01 .01
F 20.94*** 23.46*** 17.49*** 16.27**
∆F 20.94/14 33.80/2 3.21/7 2.00/2
Standardized coefficients (betas) are reported.
a
N = 1336.
+p < .10.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
***P < .001.

The results for Model 2 indicate that work–family conflict (β = .15, p < .001) and
family–work conflict (β = .11, p < .001) were significantly related to FWA demand.
In Model 3, regarding the two-way interactions, work–family conflict increased
FWA demand more for female managers than male managers (β = .08, p < .05),
thereby supporting Hypothesis 1. Contrary to work–family conflict, gender did
not exert any influences on family–work conflict and its related FWA demand
(β = .02, ns). Model 4 demonstrates a three-way interaction among work–family
conflict, gender and family-supportive supervision on FWA demand (β = −.10,
p < .05). At a low level of family-supportive supervision, female managers demon-
strate increased demand for FWAs when they face challenges from work–family
conflict, which provided support for Hypothesis 2.
2950    H. Kim and Y. Gong

Figure 2.  Interactions between work–family conflict & family-supportive supervision on FWAs
demands.

Interpretation of interaction effects

We followed the previous literature in plotting the interaction effects (e.g. Cohen,
Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2006). Unstandardized regression coefficients were used
from the regression equations to predict managers’ FWAs. Using the calculated
results, the relationships between the independent and dependent variables
were plotted at the low (one standard deviation below the mean) and high (one
standard deviation above the mean) levels of the moderators. The plots in Figure 2
indicate that at a low level of work–family conflict, managers have similar demand
for FWAs across genders. At a high level of work–family conflict, a low level of
family-supportive supervisor leads to an increase in the demand for FWAs
for female managers (Figure 2). A simple slope analysis shows the significant
difference between female managers with high and low family-supportive
supervisors (t = − 1.98, p < .05) and the significant difference between female
and male managers with low family-supportive supervisors (t = 2.99, p < .001).
Thus, family-supportive supervisors and gender determined managers’ demand
for FWAs when they are facing work–family conflict.

Discussion
The objective of this study was to identify the importance of gender and
family-supportive supervision in the demands for FWAs that occurs in response to
work–family conflicts. At first, we found that work–family conflict was positively
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2951

related to female (but not male) managers’ demand for FWAs. Because female
managers emphasize family obligations more than male managers, female man-
agers are more likely to exert control over their work schedules to prevent their
work role from having a negative effect on their family. However, there was no gen-
der difference in the relation between family–work conflict and FWAs demands.
Finally, at low levels of family-supportive supervision, female managers facing
work–family conflict had greater demand for FWAs.

Implications for research

Gender roles shape different expectations concerning the appropriate behaviors,
values and responsibilities of men and women. Gender-typical roles, such as
breadwinner compared with homemaker, are imposed on both men and women
(Hoobler et al., 2009). Although company managers identify with multiple roles,
the subjective importance that is assigned to a given role may differ, and gender
may influence this difference. Gender belief systems that focus on a gender-based
division of labor continue to prevail in many societies (Shockley & Singla, 2011).
Because family roles are more important to female managers than their male
counterparts, female managers are more likely to derive their personal identity
from the family domain. By contrast, male managers are less likely to preserve
family role identity when facing interference from the work domain because they
value company work and job responsibilities more highly.
To protect them from the incursions of negative work experiences in the fam-
ily domain, female managers who acknowledge the salience of family roles need
FWAs more than male managers do. In contrast to work–family conflict, there was
no gender difference in the demand for FWAs when negative family experiences
interfere with the work domain (i.e. family–work conflicts). Because FWAs orig-
inate from the work domain, FWAs are not specifically designed for family–work
conflict, which originates from the family domain, such as family stressors and
family involvement. Family–work conflict should not lead to gender difference
in FWAs demands. Overall, a significant implication is that the role of gender
must be considered in the asymmetric influences of work–family conflict and
family–work conflict on FWAs demand.
Gender has also been activated in the supervisors’ perceptions regarding work
and family relations, which makes a difference in the assignment of importance
and values to family roles between male and female managers. Family-supportive
supervision is congruent with the expectations concerning family obligations for
female managers. When negative working experiences distract female managers
from performing work, family-supportive supervision supports them to integrate
the work and family roles, which reduces the need for FWAs. The links between
work–family conflicts and their related FWAs demand must reflect the idea of
gender role because supervisors see the saliency of work and family roles based
on gender. The implication is that supportive supervision must be combined with
2952    H. Kim and Y. Gong

the role of gender in understanding FWAs demand in response to work–family

conflicts.
The cultural context of this study should be noted in understanding and inter-
preting the results and implications of the present study. The Korean culture is
characterized by a collectivism in which people have greater needs for interper-
sonal relationships and strong memberships. FWAs may limit daily and physical
interactions and may also reduce in-person supervision by working remotely from
immediate supervisors (Leslie et al., 2012). In Korean society, female representa-
tion on boards and executive committees stands at less than 2%, which is lower
than this same representation in other Asian countries, including China, Indonesia
and Japan (Woo, 2013). Korean working women are expected to be the primary
caregivers and educators of their children, which drains their resources for work;
in addition, gender barriers also reportedly prevent them from climbing the cor-
porate ladder (Woo, 2013). The correlation analysis between after-workhour and
gender shows that female managers spend more time on family compared to male
managers (r = .16, p < .001). The significant correlation between after-workhour
and gender indicates the saliency of family role to female managers. Female man-
agers’ use of FWAs can be interpreted as their family obligations are at odds with
their job performance. The results of the present study indicate that Korean female
managers demonstrate a higher demand for FWAs when negative job experiences
are transferred to the family domain, despite the possibility that using FWAs
may create a negative impression their career motivation and thus compromise
their career prospects. Korean female managers are willing to take career risks to
preserve the family domain from negative working experiences.

Managerial implications
Generally, FWAs are offered to company managers, but little is known regard-
ing why company managers need FWAs to alleviate work–family conflicts. This
study informs managers that work–family conflict, but not family–work conflict,
increase FWAs demands from female managers. Gender role makes the family
role salient to female managers, whose demand for FWAs will be driven by pro-
tecting the family domain from negative work experiences. When practitioners
make plans regarding intervention strategies, gender should be considered when
developing and establishing effective coping mechanisms for negative work–
family interactions.
Another implication is that the absence of family-supportive supervision pre-
vents female managers from preserving resources (e.g. time and energy) to fulfill
their family-related obligations, which, in turn, increases the demand for FWAs
(Leslie et al., 2012). Female managers are concerned about the career costs that
may be associated with FWAs because the use of FWAs may be viewed as indic-
ative of low job commitment. However, female managers are willing to utilize
FWAs when they cannot obtain and conserve psychological resources from their
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2953

supervisors for personal life accommodations. To reduce the need to invest organ-
izational resources for work–family balance, informal support such as under-
standing, respecting and sympathizing with the dual responsibilities of female
managers should be encouraged. Companies also train senior managers to employ
coping skills that facilitate transitions across the work and family domains for
junior female managers.
Furthermore, supervisor gender had significant effects on the demand for FWAs.
Female supervisors encourage company managers to utilize FWAs to fulfill family
demands without jeopardizing their work roles. Although the proportion of female
senior executives has sharply increased, males continue to dominate the senior
managerial levels. To promote work–family balance for company managers –
particularly for female managers – senior male executives should make efforts to
appreciate the importance of family obligations to female managers.
While we did not specifically examine in this study, the KWMP survey reports
that female managers who are challenged by work–family conflicts were more
likely to seek alternative methods to fulfill their family responsibilities. A total of
553 female managers reported that they seek alternative means to satisfy their fam-
ily roles and responsibilities. Among these female managers, 30% (175) employed
childcare facilities and nannies and 70% asked their parents, in-laws and relatives
to help them with their child-rearing responsibilities. Thus, most of these female
managers relied on family members instead of resorting to childcare services.
Notably, most firms in our sample did not provide female managers with FWAs:
12.5% of the companies offered flextime and core working hours, and less than
5% offered other FWA programs. The results suggest that it is critical to offer
FWAs to help female managers strike a healthy work–family balance. In recent
years, an increasing number of firms have provided female managers with various
opportunities for building and maintaining networks for their career development.
In this regard, some firms have adopted FWAs to provide female managers with
additional support for career development in addition to family-friendly policies
and programs.

Limitations and future research directions

The present study has certain limitations. First, we used cross-sectional data, which
raised the questions about causal relationships. Work–family conflicts lead to the
demand for FWAs to mitigate the effects of negative work and family experiences.
But, future researchers should conduct longitudinal research to confirm the causal
relations. Second, a country’s culture is strongly related to various issues sur-
rounding the work–family balance. However, because we considered only Korean
firms, we could not pinpoint the exact cultural effects (Kim et al., 2010). Future
researchers should consider a wider range of countries (e.g. Western countries) to
provide a direct examination of cross-cultural variation in work–family conflicts
and demand for FWAs.
2954    H. Kim and Y. Gong

Third, our variables explained a small amount of variance associated with the
demand for FWAs, although this result is consistent with the literature on FWA,
which generally shows small changes in the R-squared values. Future research
may strive to uncover other variables that may significantly influence FWAs
demand. Fourth, this study uses the availability of FWAs as a control variable
that may not reflect the actual use of FWAs. Whereas, the availability of FWAs
augments employee perceptions regarding schedule control, the use of FWAs can
help company managers make plans and manage their work and family schedules
(Allen et al., 2012). To elaborate the importance of FWA programs, future studies
may examine aspects of FWAs in greater detail, such as frequency and intensity.
Fifth, company managers have more discretion over their work schedules than
employees, which mitigates the perception about work–family conflicts compared
with employees, particularly temporary workers. Job ranks should be considered
in interpreting study results. Sixth, the results of this study must be interpreted
cautiously regarding managers who are divorced, widowed or involved in civil
partnerships. It is important to conduct research on managers in these types of
family relationship structures because socio-demographic variables significantly
affect the effects from work–family conflicts on demand for FWAs. Seventh, future
study needs to examine the potential negative consequence from the use of FWAs
in work and family life of company managers. The flexibility in the short time
can be beneficial to balance work and family. However, it can cause harms as the
incertitude may increase cognitive overload in the employees. Therefore, although
the flexibility can be used as a resource, it can exhaust them too (Lapierre & Allen,
2006).
Finally, questions can be raised about the matched-pair sample design of female
and male managers. Female managers were asked to identify male counterparts
at the managerial level to highlight gender differences in work and family varia-
bles, and 800 male managers participated in the matched-pair sample design. As
female managers are fewer and more difficult to be surveyed, KWMP used the
matched-pair design to compare female and male managers in work and family
life. This study checked whether at least female and male managers are included
in each company. However, future studies should make efforts to collect infor-
mation from independent samples of female and male managers to bolster study
sample validity.

Conclusions
FWAs are touted as a means of helping company mangers facilitate role transitions
across the work–family interface. The present study demonstrates the gender influ-
ences that determine the relation between work–family conflicts and the related
demand for FWAs. In particular, female managers have an increased demand
for FWAs to prevent incursions of work in family life. The informal aspect of
supervisory support is pivotal to the work–family relations of female managers,
 International Journal of Human Resource Management   2955

and reduces the need for the investment of organizational resources in FWAs.
Investigating gender- and family-supportive supervision helps predicting the
demand for FWAs to resolve work–family conflicts. The present study advances
the understanding of how to address FWA demand when work–family conflicts
appear to be a penalty for both career development and the quality of family life
for female managers.

Notes
1. 
For example, homeworking, alternative work scheduling and part-time work are
available, and the respondents indicated that two FWAs (telecommuting, flextime)
received scores of 2 and another two FWAs (compressed workweek and core working
hours) received scores of 4. The FWAs demand is the average of three 0s and two 2s
and two 4s divided by seven, which equals 1.51 (0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 4 = 12/7).
2. 
For example, flextime, compressed workweek, telecommuting and core working
hours were available. Another three FWAs, such as homeworking, alternative work
scheduling and part-time work were not available. The availability of FWAs is the sum
of three 1s and four 0s divided by seven equals to .42 (3/7).

Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the research program of Dongguk University, 2015.

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