204 Chapter 5 Learning

CONCept 5.28 the maze earlier, without any reinforcement, but only demonstrated what they had
In observational learning, behaviors learned when they were later reinforced for doing so. This type of learning, latent
are acquired by observing and imitating learning, is a kind of “hidden” or implicit learning that occurs without apparent re-
the behaviors of others. inforcement and is not revealed at the time learning occurs. The learned behavior is
displayed only at some later time when it is reinforced.
What had the rats learned during those unreinforced trials? The lead inves-
tigator, psychologist Edward Tolman (1886–1959), believed he had an answer.
He argued that the rats had developed a cognitive map—a mental representation
of the maze that allowed them to find their way to the goal box once a reward
became available. Tolman’s research laid a foundation for the view that humans
and other animals create mental representations of the world around them, a
theme we will pick up in Chapter 7, when we explore the field of cognitive psy-
chology.
Early work on latent learning opened the door to more recent research show-
ing that learning can occur without conscious awareness or reinforced practice
(Goschke & Bolte, 2012). A common example is learning the lyrics to a song you
may have heard repeatedly on the radio, even though you never made an effort to
learn them or ever practiced them. Learning the lyrics may remain “latent” until
OMIKRON/Science Source

someone prompts you to recite them at a party.

Observational Learning
A stroke of insight may appear to occur
at random, but we should bear in mind
In preschool, Jenny sees that the teacher praises Tina for picking up the blocks after
what the nineteenth-century scientist playing with them. Tina’s behavior provides Jenny with a cue that she can use to
Louis Pasteur famously said, “Chance guide her own behavior. In observational learning (also called vicarious learning or
favors only the prepared mind.” modeling), we acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors we observe in others.
The person whose behavior is observed is called a model.
Through observational learning, we become capable of behaviors even before we
Peter Kramer/NBC/NBC NewsWire/Getty Images

have had the chance to perform them ourselves. I have never fired a gun, but I ex-
pect I can do so because I’ve observed countless gun battles on television and in the
movies. I expect I could even learn the basics of making a soufflé by watching a chef
demonstrate each step in the process. Whether you’d want to eat it is another matter,
which only goes to underscore a limitation of learning by observation—practice and
aptitude also count in developing and refining skilled behavior.
Social-cognitive theorists such as psychologist Albert Bandura (1986, 2008a,
2009) believe that children learn to imitate aggressive behavior they observe in
the home, in the schoolyard, and on television. In a classic study, Bandura and his
“Next time we’ll do a soufflé.” We learn a colleagues showed that children imitated the aggressive behavior of characters
wide range of skills by carefully observ- they observed on television, even cartoon characters (Bandura, Ross, & Ross,
ing and imitating behavior of others. 1963). In a related study, children imitated an adult model who was shown strik-
But practice and aptitude also count in ing a toy (the “Bobo doll”) (see ■Figure 5.11). Other studies point to the same
developing skilled behaviors. general conclusion: Exposure to violence on TV or in other mass media contrib-
utes to aggressive and violent behavior in children and adolescents (Anderson,
latent learning Learning that occurs Dallal, & Must, 2003; Uhlmann & Swanson, 2004). Childhood exposure to me-
without apparent reinforcement and that is dia violence is also linked to greater aggressiveness in adulthood (Huesmann
not displayed until reinforcement is provided. et al., 2003).
cognitive map A mental representation of Modeling effects are generally stronger when the model is similar to the learner
an area that helps an organism navigate its and when positive reinforcement for performing the behavior is evident. In other
way from one point to another. words, we are more likely to imitate models with whom we can identify and who
observational learning Learning by receive rewards for performing the observed behavior. Modeling influences a wide
observing and imitating the behavior of range of behavior, from learning what outfit to wear at a social occasion, to how to
others (also called vicarious learning or change a tire, to how to cook a soufflé (see Try This Out). People even express more
modeling). positive opinions of a piece of music when they observe a model with whom they

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 M O D U L E 5.3 205

Try This Out The Fine Art of Observing Others

How might you use modeling to expand your social skills? Here’s
an example. If you’re at a loss to know what to say to someone
you meet at a party, observe how others interact with each other,
especially people you believe are socially skillful. What do you
notice about their body language, facial expressions, and topics
of conversation that could be helpful to you? Begin practicing
these behaviors yourself. Note how other people respond to
you. Polish your skills to produce a more favorable response.
With some practice and fine-tuning, the behaviors are likely to
become part of your regular behavioral repertoire.

share other opinions expressing favorable opinions of the music (Hilmert, Kulik, &
Christenfeld, 2006).
People also develop styles of dealing with conflicts in intimate relationships based
on their observations during childhood of how their mothers and fathers dealt with
marital disagreements (Reese-Weber & Marchand, 2002). For example, young peo-
ple may learn to imitate an attack style for handling disputes that they had observed
in the relationship between their parents or between their parents and themselves
(Reese-Weber, 2000).
Does the idea of holding a rat make you squirm? Does the sight of a crab
on the beach make you want to run in the other direction? How about touch-
ing an insect? Many of us have fears of various creatures even though we have
never had any negative experience with them. These fears may be acquired by
modeling—that is, by observing other people squirm or show fright when con-
fronted with them.
Concept Chart 5.3 provides an overview of the three types of cognitive learning.
© Albert Bandura/Stanford University

© Albert Bandura/Stanford University

fIGURE 5.11 Imitation of Aggressive

Models
© Albert Bandura/Stanford University

Research by psychologist Albert Bandura

and his colleagues shows that children
will display aggressive behavior after
exposure to aggressive models. Here we
see a boy and girl striking a toy “Bobo
doll” after observing an adult model
strike the doll.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
206 Chapter 5 Learning

Concept Chart 5.3 Types of Cognitive learning

Type of learning description example

Insight learning The process of mentally A person arrives at a

© Michael D Brown/
dissecting a problem solution to a problem

Shutterstock.com
until the pieces suddenly after thinking about
fit together to form a it from a different
workable solution angle.

Latent learning Learning that occurs but A person learns the

Alex Dvihally/Shutter-
remains “hidden” until words of a song
there is a reward for playing on the radio

stock.com
performing the learned but doesn’t sing
behavior them until friends at
a party begin singing.

Observational Learning by observing Through observation,

Images/Shutterstock.com
learning and imitating the a child learns to

© Monkey Business
behavior of others imitate the gestures
and habits of older
siblings.

module Review 5.3 Cognitive Learning

Recite it
14. define cognitive learning and describe several types of
cognitive learning.
In cognitive learning, an organism learns a behavior
before it can perform the behavior or be (a) ________ for
it. Cognitive learning depends on (b) ________ processes
such as thinking, problem solving, and mental imaging.
(c) ________ learning is a mental process in which the
restructuring of a problem into its component parts leads
to the sudden realization of a solution to the problem.
(d) ________ learning is a kind of “hidden” learning
that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not
displayed until reinforcement is provided.
In (e) ________ learning, behaviors are acquired by
observing and imitating the behaviors of others.

Recall it
1. What type of learning involves thinking, information process- 4. Observational learning
ing, mental imaging, and problem solving? a. is also known as latent learning.
b. involves imitating the behavior of others.
2. The chimp named Sultan learned to reach bananas by attach-
c. may lead to the acquisition of useful new skills but not
ing two sticks together. This type of learning is called
to fear responses.
a. insight learning. c. observational learning. d. is based on the principles of operant conditioning.
b. latent learning. d. classical conditioning.

3. What is the type of cognitive learning that occurs without any

apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed at the time
it is acquired?

Think About it
■ Do you believe that learning can occur by insight alone? ■ Who were the major modeling influences in your life?
Why or why not? What behaviors, positive or negative, did you acquire by
observing these models?
Recite it answers placed at the end of chapter.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203