224 Chapter 6 MeMory

lead to simplifications, omissions of (r) _______ , or even
outright fabrications.
5. Identify factors influencing the reliability of eyewitness
testimony.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
include ease of (s) _______, confidence in memory, general
knowledge about the subject, same-(t)_______ identifica-
tion, and leading or suggestive questioning.
6. Explain why the concept of recovered memory is controversial.
Some recovered memories may be credible, but others are
not. We presently lack the tools to determine which are
(u) _______ and which are not.

Recall It
1. What is the type of memory that corresponds to 3. Match the concepts on the left with their descriptions on the right:
“knowing how”? I. sensory memory a. process by which short-term
memory is converted to
2. Which of the following is not correct?
long-term memory
a. Constructionist theory suggests that memory recall II. short-term memory b. also known as “working”
may not be accurate. memory
b. Information is best recalled when it is consistent with a III. consolidation c. process that uses semantic
person’s memory schemas. coding to transfer short-
c. Eyewitness testimony may be influenced by term memory to long-term
misinformation. memory
d. Flashbulb memories are immune to distortion. IV. elaborative rehearsal d. storage system for fleeting
iconic and echoic memories

Think About It
■ Why is it incorrect to say that memory works like a ■ What factors influence the accuracy of eyewitness
mental camera? testimony?

Recite It answers placed at the end of chapter.

MODULE 6.2 Forgetting

7 Describe the major theories and factors in forgetting.
8 Explain why recognition tests of memory generally produce better results than
recall tests.
9 Describe the causes of amnesia and the two major types of amnesia.

CONCept 6.15
The oldest theory of forgetting, decay the-
ory, may explain memory loss that occurs
due to the passage of time, but it fails to
account for why some memories are more
enduring.
Everyone is forgetful. Some of us are more forgetful than others. But why do we
forget? Is it simply a matter of memories fading over time? Or are there other
factors that account for forgetfulness? Degenerative brain diseases, such as Alz-
heimer’s disease, are one cause of forgetfulness; another is amnesia, a memory
disorder we discuss at the end of this module. Our main focus here, however, is on
normal processes of forgetting. We recount several leading theories of forgetting
and highlight the factors that make it easier or harder to remember information.
We begin with decay theory.

Decay Theory: fading Impressions

The belief that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually
deteriorate and fade away over time dates back to the writings of the Greek philoso-
pher Plato some 2,500 years ago (Willingham, 2007). This theory of forgetting, now

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 M O D U L E 6.2 225

known as decay theory (also called trace theory), was bolstered by early exper- 100
imental studies conducted by one of the founders of experimental psychology,
80

Percent retained
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909).
An interesting aspect of Ebbinghaus’s experimental work on forgetting is 60
that the only subject in his early studies was himself. To study the processes
40
of memory and forgetting, Ebbinghaus knew he had to eliminate any earlier
associations to the material to be remembered. He devised a method for testing 20
memory that used nonsense syllables (combinations of letters that don’t spell
out anything), such as nuz and lef (Ebbinghaus, 1885). He presented these lists
1 2 3 4 5 6
of syllables to himself and determined the number of trials it took for him to Days
recall them perfectly. He then tested himself again at different intervals to see
how much he would forget over time. The results showed a decline in mem- fIGURE 6.7 Ebbinghaus forgetting
ory that has since become known as the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve (see ■ Fig- Curve
ure 6.7). Forgetting occurred rapidly in the first few hours after learning and then Ebbinghaus showed that forgetting
declined more gradually. It seemed as though memories simply faded over time. By occurs most rapidly shortly after learning
the end of the first day, 66 percent of the information had been lost, and after a and then gradually declines over time.
month, nearly 80 percent was gone (Rupp, 1998).
Ebbinghaus also employed a savings method to test his memory retention. He
first counted the number of times needed to rehearse a list of nonsense syllables in
order to commit it to memory. Then he counted the number of times it took to re-
learn the list after a period of time had elapsed. If it took ten repetitions to learn the
list the first time and five the second, the savings would be 50 percent.
Memory researchers recognize that when people attempt to memorize informa-
tion, they generally retain more information when they space their study sessions
than when they cram them together within a single day (Cepeda et al., 2006). One
reason for this effect, called the massed versus spaced practice effect, is that massed,
or crammed, practice causes mental fatigue that interferes with learning and reten-
tion. A practical implication of this effect should be obvious: When studying for
exams, don’t cram. Rather, space out your study sessions. You’ll learn more and
remember more of what you learn. Also, spaced practice produces the same learning
benefits for other animals, which is useful to keep in mind when trying to train your
dog (Aamodt & Wang, 2008).
Antoine Rouleau/Getty Images
Decay theory helps account for memory loss due to the passage of time. How-
ever, a major weakness of the theory is that it fails to account for the unevenness
with which memory decays over time. Some memories remain well preserved over
time, whereas others quickly fade. One reason for this unevenness is that more dis-
tinctive or unusual information tends to be remembered better over time (Hunt &
Worthen, 2006; Unsworth, Heitz, & Parks, 2008). You’re likely to remember your
first date better than your 14th. You’re also more likely to later recall the name of a
man you were introduced to at a party if the man’s name was Oscar than if it had decay theory A theory of forgetting that
been Michael or Chris. posits that memories consist of traces
laid down in the brain that gradually
Ebbinghaus studied retention of meaningless syllables. When we examine recall
deteriorate and fade away over time (also
of more meaningful information, such as poetry or prose, we find a more gradual called trace theory).
loss of memory over time. Then again, little if any forgetting may occur for impor-
tant life events and knowledge we acquire about our work or career. Another factor savings method A method of testing
that helps explain forgetting is interference (Wixted, 2005). memory retention by comparing the
numbers of trials needed to learn material
with the number of trials needed to relearn
the material at a later time.
Interference Theory: When Learning More Leads massed versus spaced practice
to Remembering Less effect The tendency for retention of
learned material to be greater with spaced
Chances are you have forgotten what you ate for dinner a week ago Wednesday. practice than with massed practice.
The reason for your forgetfulness, according to interference theory, is interference interference theory The belief that
from memories of dinners that preceded and followed that particular dinner. On forgetting is the result of the interference
the other hand, you are unlikely to forget your wedding day because it is so unlike of memories with each other.

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226 Chapter 6 MeMory
CONCept 6.16
Interference theory posits that memories
held in short-term or long-term memory
may be pushed aside by other memories.
Want to do well on your exams? Study,
yes, but don’t skimp on sleep.
retroactive interference A form of
interference in which newly acquired
information interferes with retention of
material learned earlier.
proactive interference A form of
interference in which material learned
earlier interferes with retention of newly
acquired information.
overlearning Practice repeated beyond
the point necessary to reproduce material
without error.
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any other day in your life (except for those, perhaps, who have taken many walks
down the aisle). Interference theory helps explain why some events may be easily
forgotten while others remain vivid for a lifetime. The greater the similarity between
events, the greater the risk of interference. There are two general kinds of interfer-
ence, retroactive interference and proactive interference.
Interference occurring after material is learned but before it is recalled is called
retroactive interference. Perhaps you have found that material you learned in your
9:00 A.M. class, which seemed so clear when you left the classroom, quickly began to
fade once you started soaking in information in the next class. In effect, new memo-
ries retroactively interfere with unstable earlier memories that are still undergoing the
process of memory consolidation (Wixted, 2004).
Proactive interference is caused by the influence of previously learned material.
Because of proactive interference, you may have difficulty remembering a new area
code (you keep dialing the old one by mistake). Or you may forget to advance the
year when writing checks early in a new year. ■ Figure 6.8 illustrates retroactive and
proactive interference.
Though some interference is unavoidable, we can take steps to min-
imize its disruptive effects:
■ Sleep on it. Want to improve your recall of newly learned material?
Sleep on it. Sleep is believed to play an important role in converting
fragile new memories into lasting ones (Cohen et al., 2012). By first
learning course material and then sleeping on it, you may retain
more of what you learn.
CandyBox Images/Shutterstock.com
■ Rehearse fresh memories. New long-term memories are fragile. Prac-
ticing or rehearsing fresh memories aloud or silently can strengthen
them, making them more resistant to the effects of interference.
Repeated practice beyond the point necessary to reproduce material
without error is called overlearning. Apply the principle of overlearn-
ing to reviewing the material in this text, such as by rehearsing your
knowledge of the key concepts in each chapter two or more times
after you can demonstrate your knowledge without any errors.
Retroactive
1
Interference
Study philosophy Study psychology Test in philosophy
at 9 A.M. at 11 A.M. the next day
Proactive
2
Interference
Study philosophy Study psychology Test in psychology
at 9 A.M. at 11 A.M. the next day
figure 6.8 retroactive and Proactive interference
In 1 retroactive interference, new learning (psychology in the first example) interferes with
recall of previously learned material (philosophy). In 2 proactive interference, previously
learned material (philosophy in the second example) interferes with recall of new material
(psychology).
 M O D U L E 6.2 227

■ Give yourself a break. Try not to schedule one class directly after another. Give
your recent memories time to consolidate in your brain.
■ Avoid sequential study of similar material. Try not to study material that is
similar in content in back-to-back fashion—for example, avoid scheduling a
French class right after a Spanish one.
Interference may help explain the serial position effect, the tendency to recall
the first and last items in a list, such as a shopping list, better than those in the
middle of the list. The unfortunate items in the middle are often forgotten. Putting
the serial position effect to the test, researchers asked college students to recall

Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Getty Images

as many presidents as they were able to remember (Roediger & DeSoto, 2014).
Students tended to recall the first few presidents and the last few, but not those in
the middle. There were a few exceptions, however. Can you guess which “mid-
dle” presidents were more likely to be remembered? The answer, not surprisngly,
was perhaps the most revered president, Abraham Lincoln (#16), and the two
presidents who succeeded him, Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant.
Interference is the likely culprit in serial position effects. Items compete with one
another in memory, and interference is greatest in the middle of a list than at either
end of the list. For example, in a list of seven items, the fourth item may interfere This man remembered the broccoli his
with the item that it follows and the item that it precedes. But interference is least wife asked him to pick up at the store,
for the first and last items in the list—the first, because no other item precedes it; the but not the tuna. Based on your knowl-
last, because no other item follows it. The tendency to recall items better when they edge of the serial position effect, why
are learned first is called the primacy effect (Davelaar et al., 2005). The tendency to do you suppose he remembered the
recall items better when they are learned last is called the recency effect. As the delay broccoli and not the tuna?
between a study period and a test period increases, primacy effects become stron-
ger whereas recency effects become weaker (Knoedler, Hellwig, & Neath,
1999). This recency–primacy shift means that as time passes after you
have committed a list to memory, it becomes easier to remember the early
items but more difficult to remember the later-appearing items in the list.
In sum, evidence shows that both the passage of time and interference
contribute to forgetting. But neither decay theory nor interference the-
ory can determine whether forgotten material becomes lost to memory or
just more difficult to retrieve. Some forgotten material can be recovered if
subjects are given retrieval cues to jog their memories, such as exposure to
stimuli associated with the original situations in which the memories were
formed. This brings us to a third model of forgetting, retrieval theory.

Retrieval Theory: forgetting as a Breakdown

© JohnKwan/Shutterstock.com
in Retrieval
Retrieval theory posits that forgetting is the result of failing to access stored
memories. Let us consider two principal ways in which the retrieval process can
break down, encoding failure and lack of retrieval cues.
serial position effect The tendency to
Encoding failure: What Image Is on the Back Side of a Nickel? recall items at the start or end of a list
better than items in the middle of a list.
Memories cannot be retrieved if they were never encoded in the first place. The fail-
ure to encode information may explain why people often cannot recall details about primacy effect The tendency to recall
items better when they are learned first.
common objects they use every day. For example, do you know what image appears
on the back of a nickel? Before you rummage through your pockets, let me tell you recency effect The tendency to recall
it is an image of Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, whose image is on the items better when they are learned last.
front of the coin. You may have glanced at this image of Monticello countless times retrieval theory The belief that forgetting
but never brought it into memory because you failed to encode it. We tend to encode is the result of a failure to access stored
only as much information as we need to know (Rupp, 1998). Because we don’t need memories.

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228 Chapter 6 MeMory

CONCept 6.17
The serial position effect explains why we
are more likely to forget the middle items
in a list than those at the beginning or end.
CONCept 6.18
Memory retrieval may be impaired by a
failure to encode information and by a lack
of retrieval cues to access stored memories.
to encode more specific details of a coin to recognize one or use it correctly, such
information may not be encoded and thus cannot be retrieved (see also the Try This
Out titled “What Does a Dime Look Like”?).
Events that stand out tend to be better remembered. You are also more likely to re-
member events that occur irregularly (for example, visits to a doctor because of an in-
jury) than regularly occurring events (for example, routine medical checkups). Events
that are similar are generally encoded in terms of their common features rather than
their distinctive characteristics. Because similar events tend to be encoded in similar
ways, it becomes more difficult to retrieve memories of the specific events.

Try This Out What Does a Dime Look Like?

one. Here’s an opportunity to
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) test your knowledge of the image
on another coin you’ve handled
countless times in your life.
Without looking at the coins in
your pocket, can you tell which
drawing of a dime in ■ Figure 6.9
is the correct one? The answer
appears on p. 239.
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j) Don’t be too hard on yourself if you
failed to identify the correct image.
In all likelihood, you never encoded
the correct image in the first
place. We tend to encode only as
much detail as we need to identify
common objects.
If you’d like another try, see if you
can identify the correct image
fIGURE 6.9 What Image Appears on the front of a Dime?
of the Apple logo from those
images shown in ■ Figure. 6.10.
How well do you remember the features of common coins you Investigators found that fewer than half of the UCLA students they
may have in your pocket at this very moment? In a classic study, tested picked the correct image when it was shown along with a
researchers Raymond Nickerson and Marilyn Jager Adams set of similar logos (Blake, Nazarian, & Castel, 2015). Only one of
(1979) decided to find out. They showed subjects an array of the 85 students was able to draw the correct logo on a blank piece
drawings of a penny, only one of which was correct. Fewer of paper. Go ahead and try it yourself. Take out a piece of paper
than half of their subjects were able to pick out the correct and draw the Apple logo without looking at it.
Adam Blake, Meenely Nazarian, Alan Castel/UCLA Psychology

fIGURE 6.10 Examples of Incorrect Logos Shown in Study

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 M O D U L E 6.2 229

Lack of Retrieval Cues: What’s His Name? CONCept 6.19

Information may be encoded in memory but remain inaccessible because of a lack of A common problem with memory retrieval
appropriate retrieval cues. A common and often embarrassing difficulty with memory involves the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon,
the experience of sensing you know some-
retrieval is recalling proper names. Proper names have no built-in associations, no con-
thing but just cannot seem to bring it to mind.
venient retrieval cues or “handles” that can be used to distin-
guish among the many Jennifers, Susans, Davids, and Petes of
the world. A lack of retrieval cues may account for a common
experience called the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon, in
which the information seems to be at the tip of one’s tongue but
just outside one’s reach. If you’ve ever felt frustrated trying to re-
call something you’re certain you know but just cannot seem to
bring to mind, you’ve experienced the TOT phenomenon. People
who experience TOTs (and that includes most of us) may have
partial recall of the information they are trying to retrieve, which
is why they feel so sure the information is stored somewhere in
their memory (Farrell & Abrams, 2011). They may recall the

william87/Getty Images
first few letters or sounds of the word or name (“I know it starts
with a B”), or perhaps a similar-sounding word comes to mind.
TOTs may result not only from a lack of available retrieval cues
but also from more general difficulties with word retrieval. TOTs
tend to increase later in life, when word retrieval typically be- ”What’s his name? Wait, I’ve got it on the
comes more difficult (Theocharopoulou et al., 2015). tip of my tongue.”

Motivated forgetting: Memories Hidden

from Awareness
Sigmund Freud believed that certain memories are not forgotten but are kept hidden CONCept 6.20
from awareness by repression, or motivated forgetting. In Freud’s view, repression is In Freudian theory, the psychological
a psychological defense mechanism that protects the self from awareness of threat- defense mechanism of repression, or
ening material, such as unacceptable sexual or aggressive wishes or impulses. Were it motivated forgetting, involves banishing
not for repression, Freud believed, we would be flooded with overwhelming anxiety threatening material from consciousness.
whenever such threatening material entered consciousness. Repression, or motivated
forgetting, is not simple forgetting; the repressed contents do not disappear but re-
main in the unconscious mind, hidden from awareness.
Freud’s concept of repression does not account for ordinary forgetting—the kind
that occurs when you try to retain information you read in your psychology textbook.
Another problem with this concept is that people who are traumatized by rape, com-
bat, or natural disasters, such as earthquakes or floods, tend to retain vivid if some-
what fragmented memories of these experiences. They often find it difficult to put such
anxiety-evoking events out of their minds, which is the opposite of what we might ex-
pect from Freud’s concept of repression. Moreover, because repression operates uncon-
sciously, we may lack direct means of testing it scientifically. Nonetheless, many memory
researchers believe that repression can occur under some conditions (Willingham, 2007).

Measuring Memory: How It Is Measured May

Determine How Much Is Recalled tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
An experience in which people are sure
Students who are given the choice generally prefer multiple-choice questions to ques- they know something but cannot seem to
tions that require a written essay. Why? The answer has to do with the different ways bring it to mind.
in which memory is measured. repression In Freudian theory, a type of
The methods used to measure memory can have an important bearing on how defense mechanism involving motivated
well you are able to retrieve information stored in memory. In a recall task, such as forgetting of anxiety-evoking material.

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230 Chapter 6 MeMory

CONCept 6.21 an essay question, you are asked to reproduce information you have committed to
The methods used to measure memory, memory. There are three basic types of recall task. In free recall, you are asked to re-
such as recall tasks and recognition tasks, call as much information as you can in any order you wish (for example, randomly
affect how much we are able to recall. naming starting players on your college’s basketball team). In a serial recall task, you
are asked to recall a series of items or numbers in a particular order (for example, re-
CONCept 6.22 citing a telephone number). In paired-associates recall, you are first asked to memo-
There are two general types of amnesia: rize pairs of items, such as pairs of unrelated words like shoe–crayon and cat–phone.
retrograde amnesia (loss of memory of
You are then presented with one item in each pair, such as the word shoe, and asked
past events) and anterograde amnesia
to recall the item with which it was paired (crayon). If you’ve ever taken a foreign
(loss or impairment of the ability to form
or store new memories). language exam in which you were presented with a word in English and asked to
produce the foreign word for it, you know what a paired-associates recall task is.
In a recognition task, you are asked to pick out the correct answer from among a
range of alternative answers. Tests of recognition memory, such as multiple-choice tests,
generally produce much better retrieval than those of recall memory, largely because
recognition tests provide retrieval cues. You’re more likely to remember the name of the
author of Moby Dick if you see the author’s name among a group of multiple-choice
responses than if you are asked to complete a recall task, such as a fill-in-the-blank item
in which you are required to insert the author’s name (Herman Melville).
William Perugini/Shutterstock.com

Amnesia: Of Memories Lost or Never Gained

A medical student is brought by ambulance to the hospital after falling from his
motorcycle and suffering a blow to his head. His parents rush to his side, keeping a
Amnesia is often caused by a traumatic vigil until he regains consciousness. Fortunately, he is not unconscious for long. As
injury to the brain. This man was involved his parents are explaining what has happened to him, his wife suddenly bursts into
in a motor vehicle crash in which he was the hospital room, throwing her arms around him and expressing her great relief
knocked unconscious. He may remem- that he wasn’t seriously injured or killed. When his wife, whom he had married only
ber nothing about the accident, or even a few weeks earlier, leaves the room, the medical student turns to his mother and
about events leading up to the accident, asks, “Who is she?” (cited in Freemon, 1981, p. 96).
when he regains consciousness. How can we explain this severe loss of memory? The medical student suffered
from a type of amnesia, or memory loss. The term amnesia is derived from the Greek
roots a (“not”) and mnasthai (“to remember”).

Types of Amnesia
The medical student suffered from retrograde amnesia, or loss of memory of past
events. A football player knocked unconscious by a blow to the head during a game
may remember nothing beyond suiting up in the locker room. A boxer knocked cold
in the ring may not remember the fight. A blow to the head can interfere with mem-
ory consolidation—which, as we noted in Module 6.1, is the process of converting
free recall A type of recall task in which unstable, short-term memories into stable and enduring ones. When this process is
individuals are asked to recall as much disrupted, memories of events occurring around the time of the disruption may be
information as they can about a particular lost permanently. Some cases go beyond problems with memory consolidation. The
topic in any order. medical student’s memory loss extended beyond the time of his head injury to before
recognition task A method of measuring he had met his wife. In such cases, whole chunks of memory are lost. Nonetheless,
memory retention that assesses the ability recent memories are generally more susceptible to retrograde amnesia than remote
to select the correct answer from among a events (James & MacKay, 2001). In another form of amnesia, anterograde amnesia,
range of alternative answers. people cannot form or store new memories or have difficulty doing so.
amnesia Loss of memory.
retrograde amnesia Loss of memory of Causes of Amnesia
past events. Amnesia may be caused by physical or psychological factors. Physical causes include blows
anterograde amnesia Loss or impairment to the head, degenerative brain diseases (such as Alzheimer’s disease; see Chapter 9), block-
of the ability to form or store new age of blood vessels to the brain, infectious diseases, and chronic alcoholism. Amnesias in
memories. some cases may be reversed if the underlying physical problem is successfully treated.

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 M O D U L E 6.2 231

Concept Chart 6.2 forgetting: Key Concepts

Jupiter Images
Image Source/

Concept Description Example

Decay theory Gradual fading of memory traces as a function Facts you learned in school gradually fade out
of time of memory over time.
Theories of forgetting

Interference theory Disruption of memory caused by interference After sitting through your biology lecture, you
of previously learned material or newly forget what you learned in chemistry class the
learned material hour before.

Retrieval theory Failure to access material stored in memory You have difficulty remembering something
because of encoding failure or lack of you know is stored in memory.
retrieval cues

Motivated forgetting Repression of anxiety-provoking material You cannot remember a traumatic childhood
experience.

Recall task Test of the ability to reproduce information You recite a phone number or the capitals of U.S.
Measuring

held in memory states or the provinces of Canada.

Methods

Recognition task Test of the ability to recognize material held You recognize the correct answer in a
in memory multiple-choice question.

Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory of past events After suffering a blow to the head in a car
accident, you are unable to remember details
Amnesia
Types of

of the accident itself.

Anterograde Loss or impairment of the ability to form or Because of a brain disorder, you find it difficult
amnesia store new memories to retain new information.

Amnesia resulting from psychological causes is called dissociative amnesia. Dissoci-

ation means “splitting off.” Memories of a traumatic experience may become “dissoci-
ated” (split off) from consciousness, producing a form of amnesia for events occurring
during a specific time (see Chapter 13). These events may be too emotionally troubling—
provoking too much anxiety or guilt—to be consciously experienced. A soldier may have
at best a dim memory of the horror he experienced on the battlefield and remember
nothing of his buddy being killed; yet his memory of other past events remains intact. dissociative amnesia A psychologically
Rarely is dissociative amnesia of the type that fuels many a daytime soap opera, the type based form of amnesia involving the
in which people forget their entire lives—who they are, where they live, and so on. “splitting off” from memory of traumatic or
Concept Chart 6.2 provides an overview of the key concepts of forgetting. troubling experiences.

MODULE REVIEW 6.2 Forgetting

Recite It
7. Describe the major theories and factors in forgetting.
(a) _______ theory holds that forgetting results from the
gradual deterioration of memory traces in the brain.
(b) _______ theory is the belief that forgetting results
from the interference of memories with each other.
(c) _______ theory holds that forgetting is the result of a
failure to access stored memories.
(d) _______ forgetting, or repression, is the Freudian be-
lief that people banish anxiety-provoking material from
conscious awareness.

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