Geology

came from the Greek word Geo, meaning "Earth" and logia, "study of".
Thus, geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks
of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change.
         Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary
evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates. In
modern times, geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon
exploration and exploitation and for evaluating water resources.

          It is publicly important for the prediction and understanding of natural hazards,
and the remediation of environmental problems. Geology plays a role in geotechnical
engineering and is a major academic discipline.

PRINCIPLES TO REBUILD AND UNDERSTAND THE

HISTORY OF THE EARTH
The Principle of Uniformitarianism

This principle states that the processes that act

to reform the Earth today are very much the
same as how it worked in the past. It only goes
to show that the natural laws are constant
across space and time. According to James
Hutton, a Scottish Physician and Geologist,
“The present is the key to the past. The past
history of our globe can be explained by what
can be seen to be happening now.”

The Principle of Intrusive/Cross – Cutting Relationships

Intrusions are basically liquid rocks that form

from under the Earth’s surface. This principle
states that if an intrusion of igneous rock cuts
across a formation of sedimentary rock, the
igneous intrusion is therefore younger than the
sedimentary rock.

*Image I: These relations can be used to

give structures a relative age. Explanations:
A - folded rock strata cut by a thrust fault; B
- large intrusion (cutting through A); C -
erosional angular unconformity (cutting off
A & B) on which rock strata were deposited;
D - volcanic dyke (cutting through A, B &
C); E - even younger rock strata (overlying
C & D); F - normal fault (cutting through A,
B, C & E).

The Principle of Inclusions and Components

 It is stated in this principle that if inclusions are
found in a formation of sedimentary rocks, it
means that the inclusions are older than the
formation that comprises them. As such, it is
common for a gravel to be torn and eventually
be part of a new formation.

The Principle of Original Horizontality

This principle was suggested by Danish

geological pioneer, Nicholas Steno (1638-
1686). According to him, the layers of the
sediments are originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity. This is extremely
vital in studies concerning folded and tilted
strata.

  The Principle of Superposition

According to this principle, if rock layers are not

overturned, then the oldest rock layer is
situated at the bottom part, whereas layers
succeeding it are younger. A younger rock
layer cannot slip past an older layer unless
deliberately done so. 

The Principle of Faunal Succession

This principle is based on the fossils found in

the different layers of sediment formations.
Just like the principle of superposition, fossils
which are at the bottom part are typically older
than those above them. In such a way, a bone
of a Neanderthal man cannot be found at the
same level as that of the bone of a dinosaur
that precedes it.

           These are just some of the processes and principles

that geologists use in determining the history of
Earth. Through such studies and principles, the
sequencing and chronological order of life on Earth has
been unraveled, and has been unraveling continuously
throughout the years of scientific studies employed in
Geology.
 came from the Greek word Geo, meaning "Earth" and logia, "study of".
Thus, geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks
of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change.

         Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary
evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates. In
modern times, geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon
exploration and exploitation and for evaluating water resources.

          It is publicly important for the prediction and understanding of natural hazards,
and the remediation of environmental problems. Geology plays a role in geotechnical
engineering and is a major academic discipline.

PRINCIPLES TO REBUILD AND UNDERSTAND THE

HISTORY OF THE EARTH
The Principle of Uniformitarianism

This principle states that the processes that act

to reform the Earth today are very much the
same as how it worked in the past. It only goes
to show that the natural laws are constant
across space and time. According to James
Hutton, a Scottish Physician and Geologist,
“The present is the key to the past. The past
history of our globe can be explained by what
can be seen to be happening now.”

The Principle of Intrusive/Cross – Cutting Relationships

Intrusions are basically liquid rocks that form

from under the Earth’s surface. This principle
states that if an intrusion of igneous rock cuts
across a formation of sedimentary rock, the
 igneous intrusion is therefore younger than the
sedimentary rock.

*Image I: These relations can be used to

give structures a relative age. Explanations:
A - folded rock strata cut by a thrust fault; B
- large intrusion (cutting through A); C -
erosional angular unconformity (cutting off
A & B) on which rock strata were deposited;
D - volcanic dyke (cutting through A, B &
C); E - even younger rock strata (overlying
C & D); F - normal fault (cutting through A,
B, C & E).

The Principle of Inclusions and Components

It is stated in this principle that if inclusions are

found in a formation of sedimentary rocks, it
means that the inclusions are older than the
formation that comprises them. As such, it is
common for a gravel to be torn and eventually
be part of a new formation.

The Principle of Original Horizontality

This principle was suggested by Danish

geological pioneer, Nicholas Steno (1638-
1686). According to him, the layers of the
sediments are originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity. This is extremely
vital in studies concerning folded and tilted
strata.

  The Principle of Superposition

According to this principle, if rock layers are not

overturned, then the oldest rock layer is
situated at the bottom part, whereas layers
succeeding it are younger. A younger rock
layer cannot slip past an older layer unless
deliberately done so. 

The Principle of Faunal Succession

This principle is based on the fossils found in

the different layers of sediment formations.
 Just like the principle of superposition, fossils
which are at the bottom part are typically older
than those above them. In such a way, a bone
of a Neanderthal man cannot be found at the
same level as that of the bone of a dinosaur
that precedes it.

           These are just some of the processes and principles

that geologists use in determining the history of
Earth. Through such studies and principles, the
sequencing and chronological order of life on Earth has
been unraveled, and has been unraveling continuously
throughout the years of scientific studies employed in
Geology.