HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 827 Accessories ACCUMULATORS Accumulators are employed in hydraulic circuits to store the excess flow (hydraulic power) from a pump to meet any of the following requirements: - to meet the demand for increased flow rates during a portion of the working cycle, thus allowing a smaller pump to be used for the system, - to provide an emergency source of energy to render a fail-safe system in the event of failure of the pump, - to maintain the system pressure within tolerable limits in locked circuits by compensating for leakage flow or increase in pressure due to thermal expansion and - to absorb pump flow ripples and pressure surges in a system. Accumulators can be of weight, spring or hydropneumatic type. The hydropneumatic type of accumulators using precharged nitrogen to act as a spring is commonly used. Nitrogen is separated from the oil side by a piston, bag or diaphragm. Hydraulic fluid pressure, when admitted into the oil side of the accumulator, moves the separator compressing the nitrogen till a balance of pressure is reached on the two sides. Nitrogen is used in preference to air since the latter has the tendency to cause dieselling of air-oil vapour. The constructional details of piston and bag type accumulators are shown in Fig. 275. The charging unit shown alongside enables regulated precharging. Accumulators are specified by the maximum swept volume of oil and the maximum operating pressure. The diaphragm and bag type accumulators are generally supplied with a small precharge of gas to protect the separator element. Presuming the availability of sufficient flow from the pump, the flow into and from the accumulator is governed by the law pv" =constant, the index n varying between 1 to 1.3 depending upon the construction and operation. The accumulator is chosen based on the requirements of maximum flow and operating pressure. The precharge pressure of the gas is determined based on the flow and operating pressure range, aided by the p-v diagram supplied by the manufacturer of the accumulator. Operation at higher precharge pressures provides for larger flow for a given operating pressure range (Fig. 276 ) andis therefore advantageous particularly in accumulator applications for leakage compensation.HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 828 gg > Ss b) Bag type c) charging unit Fig. 275 Accumulators a) Piston type 1 1 4 ' ' 1 ' \ a 1 T és PRECHARGE IPRE SSURE ¥91/ q ANALY [i] z 8 @ f + e@ + gerlibn menss3us ONILVHI 40 02 03 04 OF 08 07 08 O8 on DISPLACED VOLUME LITRES. Fig. 276 Flow characteristics of accumulatorsHYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 829 PRESSURE SWITCHES These are auxiliary control elements required in a hydraulic system to sense the pressure level in any branch of the system to electrically trigger any other function in the system. It consists essentially of a microswitch whose contacts are opened or closed by a pressure sensing mechanism. Based on the pressure sensing mechanism the switches are classified as-diaphragm,plunger and bellows type. A diaphragm type construction is shown in Fig. 277 The deflection of the diaphragm under pressue is utilised to operate the microswitch. The initial gap between the diaphragm and the plunger of the switch is adjusted for the desired pressure setting. Pressure switches can be built for providing signals both at low and high limits of system pressure and also to operate on a pressure differential. Peay Ke iNS SSE FILTRATION AND FILTERS Contamination of oil in the hydraulic system is the single biggest source of failure of hydraulic components and systems. The close fits in most hydraulic components make it essential that the level of contamination of fluid in the system be adequately low. Contamination of system fluid is traced to sources both internal and external. The internal sources include-the dirt particles such as the lapping compounds, burrs, scales from hardened components entering into the system due to improper cleaning and seal chippings, rags from cleaning cloth and the wear particles generated during the use of the system. The external sources are-the dirt ~ contained in the fresh oil being filled in and the dust, chips, etc., blown in from the surrounding area apart from the unclean handling830 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS by the personnel. The effects of contamination are: ~ plugging of orifices, - scoring of polished surfaces, - damage to seals and - silting and wear of critical edges of valves leading to loss of control in servo systems. To render a system reliable and long lasting, adequate degree of filtration of system fluid is essential. Filters Filtering media: These offer resistance to flow whereby the contaminants in the fluid are retained back from flowing through with the fluid because of the fineness of flow passages and the tortuous flow paths. A wide range of materials such as wires, wiremesh, paper, felt, metal discs and sintered powder materials are used for the media. Wire meshes made from stainless steel, copper and phosphor bronze form the simplest of filtering media. Wire cloth, paper and felt are commonly used in pleated form for filter elements. The elements are provided with suitable backup to withstand the differential pressure across them due to fluid flow. Wire cloth filters are manufactured with a filtration Fig. 278 Disc type filter Fig. 279 Construction of a filterHYDRAULIC ELEMENTS. 831 capacity of 15 um absolute and for pressure differential as high as 300 kgflcm?. They can be cleaned and reused and are suitable for a very wide temperature range. Backwash by reversed flow, manual cleaning and ultrasonic cleaning are the methods used for cleaning these elements. Paper elements are available upto 3° um absolute filtration capacity and are suitable for a temperature range of 0 to 125°C. Generally paper filter elements are of throwaway type. Metal and paper discs are used to provide edge type filtration. Discs are stacked one above the other with discrete gaps in between (Fig. 278 ) for the fluid flow. The dirt retained at the edges can be cleaned periodically by a suitable brushing device or by reversed flow. Filters: Filters (Fig. 279 ) are integral units housing the filter elements to enable routing of fluid flow through the filtering medium in the intended direction. Filter housings are designed to withstand the system pressure they are subjected to. The filter cartridges are generally held in position by a spring, with suitable sealing rings on the end covers of the element to prevent any bypass of unfiltered oil to the downstream. A fully clogged element may mean either total blockage of flow into the system (in case of elements made to full system pressure differential) or bursting/collapsing of the element and eventual ieleasing of the entire bulk of dirt retained earlier, leading to total damage of the system. Often, the filter housings include a valve to bypass the unfiltered fluid to the downstream at a predetermined pressure differential. The bypass valve is set well below the burst collapse rating of the filter elements. Indicators and switches sensing the pressure differential serve better since they indicate as to when exactly the filter cartridge needs to be cleaned/replaced, rather than resorting to adhoc practices on periodic checks. ‘SEALS AND PACKINGS Seals are devices for closing gaps to prevent leakage or make pressure tight joints and also to prevent the entry of air and dirt from outside into the system. A wide variety of seals of different shapes and materials are used. The material of the seal must be compatible with the fluid medium. Table 364 indicates the classification of seals. They are broadly classified as static and dynamic seals. Static seals ‘ These are employed to provide a seal between two relatively static or nearly static components. Compression gaskets832 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS sandwiched between two surfaces provide sealing at the interface. Nonmetallic gaskets of cork and paper can be used for pressures in the range of 1 to 2 kgficm?. Metallic gaskets in the form of flat sheets, corrugations, round cross-sections, etc., are used for pressures as high as 1000 kgficm?. Gaskets and beadings are commonly used for applications such as door flanges and covers of reservoirs. Elastomeric O-rings are commonly used for static sealing applications such as-flanges, flange fittings, end covers of valves and cylinders and in manifold mountings of valves. Different methods of sealing using O-rings are shown in Fig. 280 . These rings are generally circular and mounted with a certain preload. Static O-rings are known to have been used for séaling pressure upto 2000 kgficm?. The static preload of about 10% to 15% of O-ring section provides the initial seal with the fluid pressure providing further sealing action. The groove volume provided should be about 15% to 20% more than the volume of the O-ring so as to permit free flow of the material of O-ring at right angles to the squeeze. Dynamic seals Dynamic seals are required to seal the annular gap between two components with relative movement. The movement may be rotary or reciprocating. Reciprocating seals The dynamic seals for sealing between two relatively reciprocating parts can be O-rings, lipped seals (single or multilipped) and piston rings. The O-rings and lipped seals provide intimate contact of the seal with the surface it is rubbing against, filling even the undulations due to surface roughness and ovality of the bore to provide thorough sealing. Elastomeric O-rings are very popular for dynamic applications because of low cost and small size. Gencrally a hardness value of HS70 is used for the material of these rings. These rings as in the case of static applications are mounted with a preload to provide the initial sealing. The use of these rings for working pressures beyond 100 kgficm? is not recommended since they tend to get extruded through the clearance. For use at higher pressures, O-rings are to be provided with antiextrusion devices by way of backup rings-generally made of PTFE (Fig. 282). Also, O-rings in short stroke applications are found to wear rapidly. Reduced friction and wear can be effected byHYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 833 use of coaxial rings of PTFE (Fig. 281 ). Rings of other cross sections such as delta, square, multilobed/quad-rings (Fig. 283 ) are used in place of O-rings, for minimum twisting and squeezing through. S a) Fig. 280 stat sealing with O-rings. Fig. 281 Coaxial rings Fig. 282 O-rings with backup rings A, f. SL Square section ring Tee ring Delta ring Quad ring Fig. 283 Lip types are by far the most commonly used seals for sealing “between two relatively sliding parts. The seals are moulded from synthetic rubber (with or without fabric reinforcement) or leather (plain or impregnated). Y packings (also referred to as V-rings), the most popular shape of the lip seals, are used in stacks with suitable support rings (Tab. 362). The lip seals are assembled with light preload and proper arrangements for pressuring and lubricating the seals. The general survey on seals of sealing reciprocating parts and their guidelines for application are presented in Tab. 386 to Tab. 401. Use of piston rings made of cast iron or PTFE is popular for piston seals in providing low load friction and long life and in applications permitting a certain amount of interport leakage. The PTFE rings are either solid or split. The solid rings are mountéd with an interference of about 0.2% on diameter for small pistons and about 0.1% for large pistons. The ends of the split rings of cast iron or PTFE are cut as shown in Fig. 284. One ting for every 70 kgficm?, with a minimum of two rings is recommended. The ends of the adjacent rings are staggered to minimise leakage. These rings are mounted in grooves with minimum play, of about 0.01 to 0.02 “mm. The rings with butt ends are assembled to'have a gap of not more than 0.05 mm between the two ends.8 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS OO oe STRAIGHT BUTT CUT STRAIGHT STEP CUT BUTT CUT AT AN ANGLE STEP CUT AT AN ANGLE Fig. 285 Chamfering for seal assembly The seals especially of the rubber type need a surface finish in the range of 0.310 0.4 mR. on the surfaces they rub against. The circularity and cylindricity of the bores for the cylinders using rubber seals can be coarser than for units with piston rings. For proper assembly, the relevant components are to be suitably designed. The ends of shafts and bores are to be adequately . chamfered (Fig. 285 ) to avoid chipping of the seal during assembly. Units are to be designed eliminating any possibility of the seals passing over grooves and ports (either during assembly or working). Otherwise, the ports and grooves are also to be chamferred to enable the seals move over them freely. Seals are required to be well lubricated prior to assembly. Rotary seals ‘The seals for rotary applications can be either lip seals or mechanical seals. The rotary shaft seals of nitrile rubber are commonly used for sealing leakage of oil from gear boxes through bearings, in pumps for preventing the external leakage of oil through the bearings and. further for preventing air from being sucked into the pump. They are recommended for peripheral speeds upto 18m/sec. Good surface finish on the shaft and adequate lubrication for the seals are essential for proper functioning Mechanical seals are employed in applications where rotary shaft seals are inadequate. These are applicable for pressure ranges upto 200 kgficm? and shaft peripheral speeds as high as 250 misec. Mechanical seals can be either face or bushing seals depending upon whether the leakage flow is radial between plain surfaces or axial between cylindrical surfaces. While axial force controls the leakageHYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 835 in face seals, the radial clearance limits the same in case of bushing seals. Fig. 286, shows the construction of a simpie face seal. An elastomeric diaphragm supported by a fixed metal casing provides the sealing, by pressing against the shoulder of the rotary shaft. Large area of sealing surface as compared with lip seals backed up bya spring force results in positive sealing. Being spring loaded, the seal face is automatically compensated for wear. This type of seal is suitable for low pressure applications (about 1.7 Agficm?), For more arduous duties, seals employing two rigid rings~one stationary and the other rotating-held in close contact by spring pressure are used. In addition these seals carry secondary seals which are relatively static (Fig. 287 ). In some instances one of the sealing members is Press fitted on to the shaft or into the bore of the housing thus eliminating the need for a secondary seal. It is also possible to make one of the sealing faces an integral part of the shaft or the housing. Application of these seals with springs is limited to low pressures (about 7 kgficm?). For high pressure applications the fluid pressure itself may be conveniently used to provide the sealing with judicious design to keep down the friction power loss and wear rate. Materials of construction for sealing faces can be carbon, plastic or ceramics against metals and metallic oxides or carbides. For ‘oils, the . combination of hardened steel with graphite and sintered or cast bronze may be used. These seals can withstand high pressures and speeds and can operate even under conditions of Poor surface finish and lubrication. seconpany ‘Seas Fig. 286 Face seal Fig. 287 Face seal with secondary seals Table 362. Recommended no. of packings per set* Pressure Leather Homogeneous | Fabricated keflem? (Natural and | (No. of synthet tings/sets) Upto 33 “Based on solid rings836 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS CONNECTING ELEMENTS Interconnection of various elements in a hydraulic system is obtained through several methods-tubing, hoses and panel mounting. The panel mounting of elements connecting each other in a desired pattern by passages within a block (Fig 288 ) is a popular method. It has the advantage of making the assembly neat and compact since it dispenses with the pipes, hoses and fittings. Static O-rings and gaskets are used in the interface to provide the sealing. The panel may be a single block with drilled interconnecting passages or an assemblage of grooved plates held together by a suitable bonding material. In general, panel mounting needs to be supplemented by tube or/and hose connections to provide flexibility of making connections and also to meet the remoteness of disposition of control and drive elements. Tubings and tube fittings Connecting two elements by GI pipes with threads at either ends has its limitations. Tube connections with end fittings are commonly employed for this purpose in fluid power applications. Various practices of effecting these joints are known. The ferrule type compkession fittings are the current standard practice. Fig 289 shows a male stud coupling for connecting a body with a tube end. The body end of the coupling is screwed into the body with a sealing washer in between to provide a‘teak proof joint at the body-coupling interface. Body end sealing without a sealing washer is also at times resorted to by using taper threads on the body end of the coupling. The sealing at the coupling-tube interface is due to the biting action of the ferrule on the tube. The ferrule is forced into the conical portion of the coupling by the nut, thereby causing its sealing edge to bite into the tube in order to take the hydraulic load and to prevent the leakage along the tube. It is standard practice to classify ferrule type steel compression couplings based on the pressure rating as light and heavy (Refer Page 898). BS 4368 and DIN 2353 may be referred to for details. Tubes for the above couplings are specified by their outer diameter. Cold drawn precision seamless steel tubes (as per BS 3601, 3602, DIN 2391, ISO R 560) of adequate wall thickness to withstand the system pressure are chosen for the purpose. The tubes can generally be mounted with a bend radius equal to three times their outside diameter.HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 837 Table 366 gives different types of couplings to meet the general industrial requirements. Banjo bolt connections are made suitable for hose ends and brazed or ferrule type tube connection. These connectors find application in surroundings with space limitation. Hoses Hoses provide for flexible connection demanded of linking two relatively moving members. They are made of nylon, PVC, flexible metallic tubes and elastomeric or rubber tubes of reinforced construction. The elastomeric hoses are the most commonly used type in the field of oil hydraulics. The basic construction of these hoses consists of an oil resistant seamless tube of synthetic rubber (neoprene) with textile, rayon or steel wire braiding for reinforcement and an outer cover of oil and weather resistant material. Hoses used in oil hydraulics are classified by SAE into 11 series (100R 1 to 100R 11). The eleven series cover the wide range of hoses manufactured for various applications (low, me’¥um and high pressure) based on the material and type of braiding. Each of the series lists the size range (bores), the recommended working Pressures, test pressures, burst rating and other properties of hoses. The end fittings attached to the hose ends (Fig 290 ) may be of the permanent type or reusable type. The latter facilitates fitting over and over again, permitting assembling required lengths of hoses in situ. Hoses need adequate care to be exercised in their application and installation as regards operation within permissible limits of pressure, temperature and bend radius. They should in no case be used as load carrying members. They are to be mounted without any twist and in configurations shown in Fig 291 ASS hier GiHYDRAULIC ELEMENTSHYDRAULIC ELEMENTS 839 HEATERS ANv HEAT EXCHANGERS The temperature of fluid in the system is required to be main- tained within certain limits. Industrial hydraulic systems are re- quired to operate satisfactorily at ambient temperatures ranging from S°C onwards. The maximum temperature of the system fluid is limited to about 60°C. Too low a temperature of fluid means high viscosity and eventual loss of system pressure. Pumps may not be able to suck at very low temperatures of oil. To overcome the problem, suitable heaters with controls to limit the temperature may have to be provided. A working temperature range of 40°C to 50°C is generally preferred. It may be noted that heaters can be employed for achieving the stable thermal condition within a very short warm up period. Too high a temperature of fluid means loss of viscosity and hence increased leakage, lowered efficiency, oxidation of the fluid and deterioration of the additives in the fluid resulting in formation of gums and sludges. Even more critical could be the thermal distortion of machine members causing machining inaccuracies. The heating up of oil in a system is due to the combined effect of ambient conditions and the loss of energy in the system. The loss of energy in the system may be due to the pump inefficiency, losses in pipelines and other connecting passages, valves and the bypassing of unused fluid from the pump under pressure through the relief valves. Often coolers may therefore be needed to keep the system fluid temperature sufficiently low. Three types of heat exchanges are commonly used-the liquid to air, liquid to liquid and refrigerat- ory types. The liquid to air or the air cooled type is similar to the au- tomobile radiators. Oil is circulated through the finned passages to be cooled by the forced circulation of air from a suitable fan over the tadiator fins. Air cooled radiators are especially suitable for applica- tions in areas with scarcity of water supply. Also they are free from the possibility of any water coming into direct contact with oil. The liquid to liquid or the water cooled type use water for carrying the heat away from the fluid. They are more effective even at a lower differential between ambient and fluid temperature. ‘These coolers are either of the shell type or tube type. These are made as single pass parallel flow, single pass reverse flow and multi- Pass counter flow types.