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2 . CON T I N U I T Y

2 .1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
Continuity in general means that you can draw the graph of a function without lifting your pen,
in its defined domain.

2 .2 Co t in u i t y a t a Po i n t
In practice, most functions of a real variable have domains that are intervals or unions of separate
intervals, and it is natural to restrict our study of continuity to functions with these domains. This
leaves us with only three kinds of points to consider : interior points (points lie in an open interval
in the domain), left endpoints, and right endpoints.

De f i n i t i o n
A function f is continuous at an interior point x = c of its domain if

lim f ( x)  f ( c)
xc

In Fig. the first function is continuous at x = 0. The function in (b) would be continuous if it had
f (0) = 1. The function in (c) would be continuous if f (0) were 1 instead of 2. The discontinuties in (b)
and (c) are removable. Each function has a limit as x  0, and we can remove the discontinuity by
setting f (0) equal to this limit.

y y y y

2
y = f(x) y = f(x) y = f(x)
y = f(x)
1 1 1 1

x x x x
0 0 0 0

(a) (b) (c) (d)

y y
1
y = f(x) = 2
x 1

x
0
x 1
0 y = sin x
ă1
(e) (f)

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The discontinuties in parts (d)ă(f) are more serious : limx0 f (x) does not exist and there is no
way to improve the situation by changing f at 0. The step function in (d) has a jump discontinuity
: the one-sided limits exists but have different values. The function f (x) = 1/x2 in (e) has an infinite
discontinuity. Jumps and infinite discontinuities are the ones most frequently encountered, but there
are others. The function in (f) is discontinuous at the origin because it oscillates too much to have a
limit as x  0.

2 .3 T y p e s o f d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
(1) Discontinuity of First kind : The point x = a will be a point of discontinuity of first type
if both right hand and left hand limits at x = a exist but are not equal, i.e.

Lt f  a  h   Lt f ( a  h)
h0 h0

(2) Discontinuity of Second kind : The point x = a will be a point of discontinuity of second
type if either or both the right hand and left hand limits do not exist or if either or both
the limits

Lt f  a  0  or Lt f ( a  0)
h0 h0 are infinite.

Removable Discontinuity : h  0 
Lt f a  h  = Lt f (a  h)
(3) h  0 i.e., limit exists but is not

equal to f (a) i.e., value, then the function is said to have a removable discontinuity. We can
re-define the function at x = a so that limit = value and thus the discontinuity has been
removed and the funtion has become continuous now.

2 .4 Co n t i n u i t y a t e n d p o i n t s
Continuity at end points is defined by taking one-sided limits.
Definition
A function f is continuous at a left end point x = a of its domain if

lim f ( x)  f (a) Continuity Two-sided Continuity

x  a from the right continuity from the left

and continuous at a right end point x = b of its

domain if y = f(x)

lim f ( x)  f (b) x
. a c b
x  b

In general, a function f is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = c in

its domain if limxc+ f (x) = f (c). It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at c if limxcă
f (x) = f (c). Thus, a function is continuous at a left end point a of its domain if it is right-continuous
at a and continuous at a right end point b of its domain if it is left-continuous at b. A function is

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continuous at an interior point c of its domain if and only if it is both right-continuous and left-
continuous at c.
y

2 y = 4 ă x2

ă2 0 2
Continuous at every domain point

Example : The function f ( x)  4  x2 is continuous at every point of its domain, [ă 2, 2]. This

includes x = ă 2, where f is right-continuous, and x = 2, where f is left-continuous.

y = U(x)
1

x
0
Right-continuous at the origin

Example : The unit step function U (x) is right-continuous at x = 0, but is neither left-continuous nor
continuous there.
We summarize continuity at a point in the form of a test.

Co n t i n u i t y T e s t
A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following three conditions.

1. f (c) exists (c lies in the domain of f)

2. limxc f (x) exists (f has a limit as x  c)

3. limxc f (x) = f (c) (the limit equals the function value)

For one-sided continuity and continuity at an end point, the limits in parts 2 and 3 of the test
should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

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Illustration 35
Consider the function y = f (x) whose domain is the closed interval [0, 4]. Discuss the
continuity of f at x = 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Solution : y
The continuity test gives the following results : y = f(x)
2
(a) f is continuous at x = 0 because
(i) f (0) exists (f(0) = 1) 1

(ii) limx0+ f(x) = 1 (the right-hand limit exists at x

0 1 2 3 4
this left end point) This function, defined on the
(iii) limx0+ f(x) = f (0)(the limit equals the function closed interval [0, 4] is
discontinuous at x = 1, 2, and 4.
value). It is continuous at all other
(b) f is discontinuous at x = 1 because limx1 f(x) does points of its domain
not exist. Part 2 of the test fails : f has different right- and left-hand limits at the interior
point x = 1. However, f is right-continuous at x = 1 because
(i) f (1) exists (f (1) = 1),
(ii) limx1+ f(x) = 1 (the right-hand limit exists at x = 1),
(iii) limx1+ f(x) = f (1)(the right-hand limit equals the function value).
(c) f is discontinuous at x = 2 because limx2 f (x)  f (2). Part 3 of the test fails.
(d) f is continuous at x = 3 because
(i) f (3) exists (f (3) = 2),
(ii) limx3 f(x) = 2 (the limit exists at x = 2),
(iii) limx3 f(x) = f (3) (the limit equals the function value).
(e) f is discontinuous at the right end point x = 4 because limx4ă f (x)  f (4). The right endpoint
version of part3 of the test fails.

2 .5 Ru l e s o f Co n t i n u i t y
If two functions are continuous at a point, then various algebraic combinations of those functions
are continuous at that point.
Continuity of Algebraic Combinations
If functions f and g are continuous at x = c, then the following functions are continuous at x = c :
1. f + g and f ă g
2. fg
3. kf, where k is any number
4. f/g (provided g (c)  0)
5. (f(x))m/n (provided f (x)m/n is defined on an interval containing c, and m and n are integers)
As a consequence polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every point where they
are defined.

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2. Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions

Every polynomial is continuous at every point of the real line. Every rational function is continuous
at every point where its denominator is different from zero.

Example :
The functions f (x) = x4 + 20 and g (x) = 5x (x ă 2) are continuous at every value of x. The function

f ( x) x4  20
r ( x)  
g ( x) 5 x  x  2 

is continuous at every value of x except x = 0 and x = 2, where the denominator is 0.

Example :
Continuity of f (x) = |x|
The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at every value of x (fig. 1.41). If x > 0, we have f (x) = x,
a polynomial. If x < 0, we have f (x) = ă x, another polynomial. Finally, at the origin, limx0 |x|
= 0 = |0|.
Example :
Continuity of trigonometric functions
y=x
The functions sin x and cos x are continuous at every value 3
y=x y=x
of x. Accordingly, the quotients
2
sin x cos x 1
tan x = cot x =
cos x sin x x
ă3 ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3
1 1 The sharp corner does not prevent
sec x = cos x = the function from being continuous at
cos x sin x
the origin (Example 58)
are continuous at every point where they are defined.
Note : If f is continuous at c, and g is continuous at f (c), then g o f is continuous at c (see Fig.).

g.f
Continuous at c
f g
Continuous Continuous
at c at f(c)
c f(c) g(f(c))

The continuity of composites holds for any finite number of functions. The only requirement is
that each function be continuous where it is applied.
A function f is said to be continuous on an interval I in its domain if limxc f (x) = f (c) at
every interior point c and if the appropriate one-sided limits equal the function values at any end points
I may contain. A function continuous on an interval I is automatically continuous on any interval
contained in I. Polynomials are continuous on every interval, and rational functions are continuous on
every interval on which they are defined.

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So m e e x a m p l e s o f Fu n c t io n s c o n t i n u o u s o n i n t e rv a l s
y y

2 y = 4 ă x2 y= 1
x

x x
ă2 0 2 0

(a) Continuous on [ă2, 2] (b) Continuous on (ă, 0) and (0, )

y y
1
y = U(x) y = cos x
1
x
0

x
0
(c) Continuous on (ă, 0) and (0, ) (d) Continuous on (ă, )

Functions that are continuous on intervals have properties that make them particularly useful in
mathematics and its applications. One of these is the intermediate value property. A function is said
to have the intermediate value property if it never takes on two values without taking on all the
values in between.
The Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose f (x) is continuous on an interval I, and a and b are any two points of I. Then if y0 is
a number between f (a) and f (b), there exists a number c between a and b such that f (c) = y0.

y
y = f(x)
f(b)
y
y = [x],
y 1 0<x<1
0
f(a)

x x
0 a c b 0 1
Fig. 1. The function f, being continuous on [a, b], Fig. 2. The function f(x) = [x], 0 < x < 1, does not
takes on every value between f(a) and f(b) take on any value between f(0) = 0 and f(1) = 1

The continuity of f on I is essential to the theorem. If f is discontinuous at even one point of I,

the theoremÊs conclusion may fail, as it does for the function graphed in Fig. 2.

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Illustration 36

x3
If possible, find the value of Lt
x 0 x
Solution :
L.H. limit : In this case x < 0  x3 < 0
 |x3| = ă x3.

x3  x3 
Now, Lt
x00
f ( x)  Lt
x00 x
 Lt    Lt  x2  0
x  0  x  x  0
  
R.H. limit : In this case x > 0  x3 > 0  |x3| = x3

x3
Now, Lt
x00
f ( x)  Lt
x00 x
 Lt
 x3
x0 x
 Lt x2  0
x0
 
Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  0  Lt f ( x)  0
 x00 x00 x0

Since L.H.L. = R.H.L. Limit exists

Illustration 37

x2  4
Does Lt exist ?
x 2 x 2

Solution :

x2  4
Let f ( x) 
x2

L.H. limit : In this case x < 2  x ă 2 < 0  |x ă 2| = ă (x ă 2)

x2  4
Now Lt f ( x)  Lt  Lt  ( x  2) = ă 4
x20 x2 2 x x2

R.H. limit : In this case x > 2  x ă 2 > 0  |x ă 2| = x ă 2

x2  4 x2  4
Now Lt f ( x)  Lt  Lt  Lt ( x  2) = 4)
x20 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2

x2  4
 Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x) i.e. Lt does not exist.
x20 x20 x2 x2 x2

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Illustration 38

x 3  x 2  16 x  20
If f (x) = , when x  2
 x  22
= k, when x = 2
and f (x) is continuous at x = 2, find the value of k. [I.I.T. 81]
Solution : Given, f (2) = k ...(1)

x3  x2  16 x  20
Lt f ( x) Lt f ( x)  Lt
Now x  2  0 = x20 x2  x  2 2

x3  2 x2  3 x2  6 x  10 x  20
 Lt
x2  x  2 2

 Lt
 x  2  x2  3 x  10 
x2  x  2 2

 x  2  x  2  x  5 
 Lt  Lt  x  5   7
x2  x  2 2 x2

 f (x) is continuous at x = 2

Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  f (2),
 x20 x20  k= 7

Illustration 39
Test the continuity of the function f (x) at x = 0, where

1
ex
,
f (x) = 1 when x  0 = 0, when x = 0
1  ex

Solution :
Given, f (0) = 0
1
L.H. limit : In this case x < 0  Lt  
x  0  0  x

1
ex 0
Lt f ( x)  Lt  0
 x00 x0 1 10
1  ex
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1
R.H. limit : In this case x > 0  Lt  
x  0  0  x

1
ex 1 1
Lt f ( x)  Lt  Lt  1
 x00 x0 1 x0 1
1 01
1  ex 1/
x
e

Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)
Since x  0  0 x  0  0

 f (x) is discontinuous at x = 0.

Illustration 40
The function

x2
f (x) = if 0  x < 1
a

= a, if 1  x  2

2b 2  4b
= , if 2x
x2
is continuous for 0  x < ; then find the most suitable values of a and b.
Solution :
Given, f(1) = a

x2 1 Lt f ( x)  Lt a  a
Lt f ( x)  Lt 
x10 x10 a a and x  1  0 x  a

2b2  4b
Given, f  
2   b2  2b
 2
2

Lt f ( x)  Lt (a)  a
x 2 0 x 20

2b2  4b
Lt f ( x)  Lt ( a)  a  b2  2b
and x 20 x 20
x2

 f(x) is continuous in [0, ]

 it is continuous at x = 1 and x = 2

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Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  f (1) 1
or  a a   1
x 10 x 10 a

Lt f ( x)  Lt f ( x)  f ( 2) or a = b2  2b
and
x  2 0 x  2 0
or, b2 ă 2b ă a = 0
When a = 1, b2 ă 2b ă 1 = 0

22 2
 b=  1 2
2
When a = ă1, b2 ă 2b + 1 = 0, (b ă 1)2 = 0 or b = 1
Answer a = 1, b = 1  2 ; a = ă 1, b = 1

Illustration 41
Determine the constants a , b, c for which the function

 1
 1  a x 
/x
x  0
 b
 x 0
f (x)  
  x  c  /3  1
1
x  0
 1
  x  1 / 2  1

is continuous at x = 0
Solution :
For function to be continuous at x = 0
RHL = LHL = f (0) &
RHL & LHL should be finite
now, solving first LHL at x = 0

lim f ( x)  lim f  0  h   lim f ( h)

x0 h0 h0

1
=  lim 1  h  h
h0

 1 
= ea using lim 1  f ( x) 
/ f ( x)
 e
 f ( x)  0 

lim f ( x)  lim f (0  h)
RHL = x  0 x0

1
 h  c /3
1
lim
= 1
h  0 /2  1
 h  1
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