The Anti-Illegal Drug Operations through Reinforcement and

Education of Tuba Municipal Police Station

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of College of Criminal Justice Education

King’s College of the Philippines

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree Bachelor of

Science in Criminology

Ramsay Tellama Bugtong

Johnny Cayabas Changgalan

Donard Batani Inlise

Atanasio Lomas-e Matib

Charles Jonard Carantes Palispis

APRIL 2023
 2

Abstract

This study aimed to identify the effectiveness of the Anti-

Illegal Drugs Operation through Reinforcement and Education

(ADORE)in the Municipality of Tuba, Benguet in terms of crime

reduction. This study was conducted to know and further

understand the effectiveness of ADORE program of the

Philippine National Police and the benefits of this to the

surrendered illegal drug offender. This study utilized

qualitative research design and use open ended questions as a

main tool in gathering data. Moreover, this study will be

having 20 Law enforcers in the municipality of Tuba as a

respondent.
 3

Acknowledgement

The researchers would like to thank the Almighty Father,

for giving us strength in conducting this research, the

ability to cope up with all the challenges that we encountered

and making us safe at all times while conducting this

research.

Behind the success of the research are the people who

encourage and shared their knowledge to the researchers. A

sincere thanks to the following:

To PCPT Jeremias P. Toyokan, the Chief of Police of Tuba

Municipal Police Station, the researcher would like to thank

him for letting us to conduct interview in the Operation

Personnel of the Police Station.

To PMsg Mark Saoyao, personnel of Tuba MPS, we would like

to thank him for giving us assistance while having the

interview at the said police station and also for giving us

some information.

To the supporting Parents, Siblings, Relatives,

Classmates, Friends and loved ones that gave us their support,

love, inspiration, and sacrifices in the success of this

research for they are the one who helped us.

 4

Table of Contents

TITLE PAGE

Abstract

Acknowledgement

Table of Contents4

List of Tables

List of Figures..............................................4

CHAPTER .....................................................5

THE PROBLEM.....................................................5

Background of the study........................................5

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework.............................16

Paradigm of the Study.........................................17

Problem and Hypotheses........................................18

 5

CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM

Background of the Study

Over 25 countries around the world have decriminalized

drugs to some degree, including Portugal, the Netherlands, the

Czech Republic, and Germany. Portugal faced a drug problem

mainly cannabis, cocaine, and heroin that peaked in the

1990s. According to the Transform Drug Policy

Foundation (TDPF), drug-related deaths in Portugal severely

worsened as HIV, AIDS, and Hepatitis B and C rates among

individuals who injected drugs increased. As response to the

worsening health of Portugal’s drug-using population,

legislators enacted “one of the most extensive drug law

reforms in the world” in 2001. Portugal decriminalized low-

level possession and use of drugs. While the manufacturing,

dealing, and trafficking of illegal drugs is still penalized

under Portugal’s criminal justice system, those found to be

in possession of drugs for personal use are not given

criminal penalties. Instead, a person faces the local panel

under Commissions for the Dissuasion of Drug Addiction

composed of professionals in the field of law, health, and

social work. The members of the panel determine the sanction

to be given. Sanctions on drug offense range from fines to

community service. If found to be suffering from drug

addiction, an individual is asked to undergo rehabilitation

in a drug rehabilitation facility. Portugal did not stop with

decriminalization. It also increased funding to help expand

and improve government programs focused on prevention,

treatment, harm reduction, and social reintegration. The

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) said that

 6

the results of Portugal’s policies included a decrease in the

number of drug-related problems. For example, from 44% in

1999, the percentage of people imprisoned in Portugal for

drug law violations decreased to 24% in 2013. Data from

the UNODC show that drug overdose also decreased among adults

to just 3 deaths for every one million citizens –  very low

compared to the European Union average of 17.3 deaths per one

million. Meanwhile, more people have also sought treatment

for drug addiction despite treatment being “voluntary”

(Gavilan, 2016).

Cannabis is the most commonly used illegal drug in

Switzerland, as it is in almost all Western nations. Among

those born after about 1980 in Switzerland, use of marijuana

is normative i.e. approximately half of young people

experiment with it sometime during their adolescence or young

adult life. After a long increase, beginning in the 1980s, the

percentage of adolescents trying the drug has fallen since the

middle of this decade; Figure S1 shows the results of one

youth survey. This pattern parallels, though belatedly, the

experience of many other Western European nations. Though the

trajectory of cannabis prevalence over time is clear, there

are large differences in the figures on current use from the

many different surveys; it is very difficult to estimate what

percentage of the Swiss population is currently using

cannabis. Heroin has been, at least until very recently, the

principal drug problem for Switzerland, as for most Western

European nations. In the mid-1990s Switzerland had a heroin

addiction prevalence that may have been the highest in Europe.

Switzerland’s heroin problem has been declining steadily over

the last decade. The estimates of the size of the group are

crude but show a reduction from about 29, 000 in 1994 to

 7

23,000 in 2002, the most recent year for which an estimate is

available. The aging of the population in treatment is a

reassuring indicator that initiation rates have been low since

the mid-1990s; whereas in 1994 the median age of those in

treatment was 26.5 years, that had risen to 30.5 by 2006. The

health of the heroin dependent population has been improving.

Cocaine use rose during the 1990s and has continued to spread

modestly this decade; police express concern that it has

become more private and harder to observe than before. Heavy

use of cocaine is largely concentrated among those who were

already dependent on heroin. Cannabis is the only drug that is

used regularly by a substantial percentage of the population.

Heroin and cocaine are the only other drugs that have - 7 -

caused substantial harm in Swiss society. Party drugs, a cause

of great concern in the late 1990s, have not increased

substantially since then (Reuter & Schnoz, 2010).

In the US, marijuana use is decriminalized in some

states, but it is still illegal at the federal level, making

it difficult for marijuana-related businesses to set up shop.

Countries that have decriminalized drugs have seen disease

rates drop as well as deaths from overdose. The legalization

of drugs, this topic is full of controversies and never-ending

arguments. On the one hand, those against legalizing dangerous

street drugs say it could potentially result in more people

accessing them and developing drug dependencies, as well as

overdosing, which could obviously grow into a heavy problem

for governments and communities to have to deal with. On the

other hand, the illegal drug trade now results in so much

violence and problematic behavior around the world, and its

criminalization actively prevents users from accessing the

health support they need to quit, causing preventable deaths

 8

to the point where this risk may outweigh the negative

possibilities. Drugs like cocaine, marijuana, and heroin have

been decriminalized in numerous countries. To date, these

include somewhere between 25 and 30 countries. By taking a

closer look at the results found in these places we can learn

what does not work, and what does, in the quest for a safer,

healthier world. Here is what has happened in a handful of

places around the globe where drugs have been decriminalized

(Simpson, 2020). In its efforts to control the use of cocaine,

heroin, marijuana, and other illegal drugs, the United States

spends about $35 billion per year in public funds. Almost half

a million dealers and users are under incarceration.

America's drug problem is mainly a legacy of the epidemics of

heroin, cocaine, and crack use during the 1970s and 1980s,

which left us with aging cohorts of criminally active and

increasingly sick users. Newer drugs, such as Ecstasy and

methamphetamine, perennially threaten to become comparable

problems, but so far have not. Using a market framework, the

book discusses the nature and effectiveness of efforts to

tackle the nation's drug problems. Drug policy has become

increasingly punitive, with the number of drug offenders in

jail and prison growing tenfold between 1980 and 2003.

Nevertheless, there is strikingly little evidence that tougher

law enforcement can materially reduce drug use. By contrast,

drug treatment services remain in short supply, even though

research indicates that treatment expenditures easily pay for

themselves in terms of reduced crime and improved

productivity. America's drug policy should be reoriented in

several ways to be more effective. Enforcement should focus on

reducing drug-related problems, such as violence associated

with drug markets, rather than on locking up large numbers of

low-level dealers. Treatment services for heavy users,

 9

particularly methadone and other opiate maintenance therapies,

need more money and fewer regulations. And programs that

coerce convicted drug addicts to enter treatment and maintain

abstinence as a condition of continued freedom should be

expanded (Boyum & Reuter, 2005). 

Drugs have been part of our culture since the middle of

the last century. Popularized in the 1960’s by music and mass

media, they invade all aspects of society. An estimated 208

million people internationally consume illegal drugs. The

illegal drug trade in the Philippines remains a serious

national concern. Two of the most used and valuable illegal

drugs in the country are Methamphetamine Hydrochloride (Shabu)

and Marijuana. Ephedrine and Methylenedioxyphenol

Methamphetamine are also among the list of illegal drugs that

are a great concern to the authorities. According to Reuters,

the President-elect of the Philippines Rodrigo Duterte has

predicted the country could become a “narco-state” if the

country’s tide of drug addiction is not pushed back. In 2012,

the United Nations said the Philippine had the highest rate of

Shabu used in East Asia, and according to a U.S. State

Department report, 2.1 percent of Filipinos aged 16 to 64 use

the drug. In Metro Manila, most barangays are being affected

by illegal drugs. According to 2011 UN Drug Report, the

Philippines has the highest Shabu abuse rate. Many people do

not understand why or how other people become addicted to

drugs. They may mistakenly think that those who use drugs lack

moral principles or will power and that they could stop their

drug use simply by choosing too. In reality, drug addiction is

a complex disease, and quitting usually takes more than good

intentions or a strong will. Drugs change the brain in ways

that make quitting hard, even for those who want to.

Fortunately, researchers know more than ever about how drugs

 10

affect the brain and have found treatments that can help

people recover from drug addiction and lead productive lives

(Pascua, 2018).

Many have called into question the actions taken by the

Philippines to combat the presence of illegal drugs. As law

makers in other regions have struggled to deal with the rising

drug problem, the Philippines have executed measures that some

view as a clear violation of human rights and others have gone

as far to label, a crime against humanity. As a result, The

International Criminal Court (ICC) opened a preliminary

investigation into the accusations against President Rodrigo

Duterte and other Philippine officials.

          President Duterte began the crackdown on drugs as

mayor of Davao City from 2013 to 2016. His campaign rested on

a plan aimed at eradicating those under suspicion of drug use

through extrajudicial tactics, claiming that drugs were a

fundamental problem for the Philippines’s development.  In

2016, Duterte was elected as President and promised a similar

strategy to combat the war on drugs, stating that, “The drive

against corruption, criminality and drugs will resume and it

will continue.” His efforts have led to a stark rise in

attacks and deaths of alleged or suspected civilians across

the entire nation. President Rodrigo Duterte’s plan to

eradicate drug use across the country has encouraged rhetoric

in the Philippines that has begun to normalize abuse,

executions, and overbearing government force. Since 2016, it

is estimated that Philippine Police have killed upwards

of 7000 people suspected of drug related crimes.  However,

activists believes the death toll to be far greater than

reported and speculate there to be wide spread cover up,

enforced disappearances and extra-judicial killings(Impact of

the Anti-Drug Campaign in the Philippines, n.d.). More than

 11

six months after President Rodrigo Roa Duterte (PRRD) took his

oath, the drug menace was still there. The Chief Executive

admitted that he failed because he did not realize how deep

and widespread the drug problem was, that it even involved

narco-police generals not until he became president. But he

firmly committed that he would vigorously pursue his drug

campaign until the last day of his presidency. Well, he may

have failed to completely obliterate the use and trading of

illegal drugs, but true to his word, there was no let-up in

his crusade against illegal drugs until the end of his term in

June 2022. The Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency reported

6,235 drug suspects killed as of February 2022, but human

rights groups estimate that the number could be four times

more than that which triggered the United Nations through the

International Criminal Court (ICC) to investigate Duterte's

"bloody war on illegal drugs"(Arevalo, 2023). 

On the other hand, Oplan Tokhang which was first

developed in Davao City Police Office (DCPO) by then Police

City Director Police Senior Supt Ronald Dela Rosa was intended

to speed up drug-problem solution by visiting houses of the

illegal drug personalities and asking them to stop the illicit

acts. The system requires that barangay captains will be at

the forefront of combating the illegal drugs by submitting a

list of their residents who are into drugs. The police

intelligence units will verify the list to validate whether

the names in the list are really into drugs. Then the police

officers will visit the houses of the drugs suspects and asked

them to stop their activities. Oplan Tokhang, or the Project

Double Barrel was implemented nationwide through the Command

Memorandum Circular 16 or CMC 2016-161. Since July 1, 2016 a

total of 7080 people were killed of which 2,555 were due to

police operations .Given this huge number, it seems that the

 12

operation went haywire (Tamayo, 2016). “Oplan Tokhang” is the

solution that the Duterte administration came up with as an

answer to the prevalent problem of illegal drug trafficking

and drug addiction in the Philippines. Ever since its

implementation during the earliest days of the Duterte

government’s term, it has come at the cost of the deaths of

thousands of citizens who had allegedly fostered involvement

with the illicit drug industry; Furthermore, among the

commonly occurring fatalities in the Duterte administration’s

“War on Drugs ”where the youth, Kian de los Santos(17) and Carl

Arnaiz (19) are only a few of the numerous young victims. The

police claim these teenagers were armed and dangerous at the

time of their encounters; this alleged “retaliation” from

suspects became a common motif for the justification of these

police killings. These young lives are only a small part of

the thousands of deaths under the Duterte

administration’s bloody campaigning an attempt to provide a

final solution to the drug problem that is afflicting the

Philippines .In the middle of the month of October in the year

of 2017, Oplan Tokhang was put to a halt by the Duterte

administration after more than a year-long campaign that left

thousands of bodies in its wake, all the while in the end

being unable to put a forth the “final solution” to the drug

problem. It was decided that the responsibility of dealing

with the issue of the illicit drug trade was transferred from

the Philippine National Police (PNP) to the Philippine Drug

Administration (Magtira 2017).

The Department of the Interior and Local Government

(DILG) launched in Manila, October 7, 2022 a nationwide anti-

illegal drugs advocacy program involving local government

units (LGUs), national government agencies (NGAs), and other

 13

key sectors of the society that will focus more on drug demand

reduction and rehabilitation (DILG Launches National BIDA

Program vs Illegal Drugs, n.d.). PIU (2022) stated that

thousand of participants rallied and pledged their support in

the campaign against illegal drugs with the Grand Launch of

“Buhay Ingatan, Droga’y Ayawan” (BIDA) Program held at the

Quezon Memorial Circle in Quezon City on November 26, 2022.The

BIDA Program is an anti-illegal drug campaign spearheaded by

the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG). It

is a countrywide anti-illegal advocacy program that involves

local government units (LGUs), national government agencies

(NGAs), and other key sectors of society. The program will

focus on drug supply interdiction through enforcement action,

and at the same time, reduce the demand for drugs by actively

pushing rehabilitation and reintegration measures for drug

dependents.

The Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency - Cordillera

(PDEA-CAR) and the Police Regional Office - Cordillera

(PROCOR) asserted that the implementation of the anti-illegal

drugs campaign in the region is successful. In Cordillera

Administrative Region, during the DILG-CAR at Your Service

Program on June 7, PDEA-CAR Regional Director Gil Castro said

the success of the anti-illegal drugs campaign in the was

achieved through the increased number of drug-cleared

barangays, arrest of high value targets affecting barangays,

and large volume of seized drugs and shabu in the region, with

the continuing support of the local government units, among

others (Anti-Illegal Drugs Campaign in CAR Successful, n.d.).

Meanwhile, the intensified anti-illegal drugs campaign in the

region has resulted in the arrest of 504 drug personalities

while almost PHP1.14 billion worth of illegal drugs has so far

been confiscated, uprooted, and burned during marijuana

 14

eradication operations. Records of the PROCor showed that from

Jan. 1 to Dec. 31 last year, at least 620 anti-illegal drugs

operations ranging from buy-bust operations, marijuana

eradication, police response, implementation of search

warrants, service of warrants of arrest, checkpoints, to

interdiction operations. The records also showed that the

continuous conduct of marijuana eradication operations in

Ifugao, Mountain Province, Benguet, and Kalinga has led to the

destruction of 4,004,024 pieces of fully-grown marijuana

plants and 1,618,375.76 grams of dried marijuana plants

(Agoot,2023).

Whereas at Barangay Poblacion, Tuba, Benguet, Mayor

Clarita P. Sal-ongan, representing the MLGU Tuba, and all

Punong Barangays of the 13 BLGUs of Tuba signed the Memorandum

of Agreement for the support to anti- illegal drug programs of

the barangays through their Barangay Anti- Drugs Abuse

Councils (BADAC). In the MOA, the MLGU Tuba agreed to annually

allocate Php325,000.00 as support, or Php25,000.00 for each

barangay.The regular program aims to strengthen the campaigns

of both MLGU and BLGUs in combatting anti- illegal activities

in the municipality (Sibonga,n.d.).Moreover, Tuba Declared

Drug-Free (2017) stated that Despite having only 49 police

personnel distributed in the 13 barangays, this town was

recently declared drug-free. Having listed 170 drug

surrenderers as of July 1, 2016 to September 14, 2017 who have

all undergone the community based rehabilitation program,

these surrenderers are now tagged as “hikers”, a moniker given

to those who have chosen to go back to the right path. Tuba

Municipal Police Station deputy for operations Inspector

Rolando Lagayan said most of the surrenderers were nabbed in

 15

12 buy-bust operations and were all caught in the possession

of shabu and marijuana. Lagayan pointed out the strong

relationship between the Tuba police and barangay leaders who

have assisted in the fight against illegal drugs and crime

prevention. Aside from successfully undergoing the community

based rehabilitation program, the 170 surrenderers are

continuously being monitored by the municipal and barangay

drug abuse councils and the Tuba police. Records showed shabu

remains as the top drug of choice by the surrenderers followed

by marijuana, and who were unfortunately supporting their

vices before surrendering to the PNP.

The researchers are motivated to conduct a study entitled

“The Anti-Illegal Drug Operations through reinforcement and

Education of Tuba Municipal Police Station” to have a

knowledge if those Anti-Illegal Drug Programs of the

Philippine National Police is effective in the Municipality of

Tuba, Benguet.

This study is aimed to know the level of effectiveness of

the Anti-Illegal Drug Operation through Reinforcement and

Education (ADORE) Program of the Philippine National Police in

the Municipality of Tuba as well as the benefits that is

gained by the people who surrendered in the Anti-Illegal Drug

Operation.

This research is significant to the following entities:

To the students of King’s College of the Philippines,

especially to the future researchers who will undergo Bachelor

of Science in Criminology, may use this study as their guide

and additional information for further studies in relation to

Anti-illegal Drug Programs of the Philippine National Police.

To the respondents, to which they may have additional

knowledge on the outcome of this study and give inspiration

about their work.

 16

To the researchers, to which they will apply what they

learned about this study and to give them motivation and

inspiration to continue researching about this research.

Operational Definition of Terms

Tuba – a place that is part of the Cordillera Administrative

Region that is located at the province of Benguet.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Psychodynamic Theory

Psychodynamic is the study of interrelationship of

various parts of the mind, personality of psyche as they

relate to mental, emotional or motivational forces especially

at the unconscious level.

Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods

particularly when based on regular personal interaction to

help a person change and overcome problems in desired ways,

psychotherapy aims to improve the individual’s wellbeing and

mental health, to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors,

beliefs, compulsions, thought or emotions and to improve

relationship and social skills (Tancangco,2018).

In relation to this study of the ADORE program of Tuba,

Municipal Police Station, they will conduct methods or

techniques on how to gain people’s trust and dependence to the

law enforcers wherein one of the methods will be conducting a

 17

frequent friendly visitation to potential drug offenders or

surrendered violators for the purpose of giving them advises,

establishing a friendly relationship, changing their

perception about law enforcers and help them in their

rehabilitation.

Paradigm of the Study

The paradigm of the study shows the coverage and

direction of the study under the independent variable composed

of (1) The status of drug related crimes in Tuba, Benguet, (2)

the reinforced and education programs offered by the ADORE,

and (3) the effectiveness of the ADORE in terms of crime

reduction. Second, the dependent variable is The Anti-Illegal

Drug Operations through reinforcement and Education of Tuba

Municipal Police Station. Third, the moderating variable

record of crime related to drugs by the Tuba Municipal Police

Station.
 18

INDEPENDENT MODERATING DEPENDENT

VARIABLE VARIABLE VARIABLE
(1) The status Record of crime The Anti-
of drug related related to Illegal Drug
crimes in Tuba, drugs by the Operations
Benguet. Tuba Municipal through
Police Station reinforcement
(2) the
and Education
reinforced and
of Tuba
education
Municipal
programs offered
Police Station
by the ADORE.
(3) the
effectiveness of
the ADORE in
terms of crime
reduction

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

 19

Problem and Hypotheses

This study aimed to identify the status of drug related

crimes, the reinforcement and education programs offered by

the ADORE, and the effectiveness of the Anti-Illegal Drug

Operations through reinforcement and Education (ADORE)in the

Tuba Municipal Police Station.

Specifically, it sought to answer the following question:

1. What is the status of drug related crimes in Tuba, Benguet?

2. what is the effectiveness of the ADORE in terms of crime

reduction?

3. What are the reinforced and education programs offered by

the ADORE?
 20

REFERENCES

Electronic Sources

Pascua, J. (2018). THE PERCEIVED EFFECTS OF THE ANTI-ILLEGAL

DRUG CAMPAIGN. International Journal of Advanced Research

in Management and Social Sciences Impact, 7(11).

https://garph.co.uk/IJARMSS/Nov2018/G-16.pdf

Agoot, L. (2023, January 26). Council to focus on 39 drug-

affected barangays in Cordillera .

https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1193606

Sibonga, F. (n.d.). MLGU TUBA AND BLGUS SIGNED MOA FOR ANTI-

ILLEGAL DRUGS PROGRAMS. Municipality of Tuba.

http://www.tuba.gov.ph/mlgu-tuba-and-blgus-signed-moa-

for-anti-illegal-drugs-programs/

Tuba declared drug-free. (2017, September 19). SUNSTAR.

https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/164943/tuba-declared-

drug-free

Revamped war on drugs launched in Cordillera. (2022, December

4). https://www.baguiomidlandcourier.com.ph/revamped-war-

on-drugs-launched-in-cordillera/
 21

 Anti-illegal drugs campaign in CAR successful - PDEA, PNP.

(n.d.). PIA., https://pia.gov.ph/news/2022/06/07/anti-

illegal-drugs-campaign-in-car-successful-pdea-pnp

PIU. (2022, November 29). Thousands Attend the Grand Launch

of BIDA Program in Quezon City. DILG-NCR.

https://ncr.dilg.gov.ph/thousands-attend-the-grand-

launch-of-bida-program-in-quezon-city/

‌DILG launches National BIDA Program vs Illegal Drugs.

(n.d.). Calabarzon.dilg.gov.ph.

https://calabarzon.dilg.gov.ph/index.php/news-events/689-

dilg-launches-national-bida-program-vs-illegal-drugs

Simpson, V. (2020, August 4). Countries That Have

Decriminalized Drugs. WorldAtlas.

https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-that-

have-decriminalized-drugs.html

Impact of the Anti-Drug Campaign in the Philippines.

(n.d.). Center for Development of International Law.

http://cdilaw.org/il-newswire/2018/2/22/impact-of-the-anti-

drug-campaign-in-the-philippines

Arevalo M. G. E. A. (2023, February 5). The ICC and the

Philippines’ anti-illegal drug campaign. The Manila

Times.

https://www.manilatimes.net/2023/02/05/opinion/columns/th e-

icc-and-the-philippines-anti-illegal-drug- campaign/1877257

Tamayo, A. (2016). Determining Statistical Pattern on the

Drug-Related Killing in Philippines Using ARIMA and

Poisson Techniques

Magtira, P. (2017). 1 A STUDY ON POVERTY AND DRUG

ADDICTION IN THEPHILIPPINES: “OPLAN TOKHANG”, AN ANTI -

POORAND INEFFECTIVE ANSWER TO THE DRUG PROBLEM .

 22

https://www.scribd.com/document/373159415/Oplan-

Tokhang-Thesis-Paper-UP-Diliman

Gavilan, J. (2016, September 5). Best practices: How other

countries dealt with drug problems. RAPPLER.

https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/145004-drugs-best-

practices-countries/

Books

 Boyum, D., & Reuter, P. (2005). An Analytic Assessment of

U.S. Drug Policy. A E I Press.

 Reuter, P., & Schnoz, D. (2009). Assessing Drug Problems

and Policies in Switzerland,  1998-2007. University of

Maryland, USA.